LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



?£ \ \\\ 



Shelf ..^BlIo 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR 



BEGINNERS 



WITH LANGUAGE 



s 



JONATHAN RIGDON, A.B. 

Author of "English Grammar for the Common School," "Grammar 

of the English Sentence and Introduction to Composition," 

"Methods in Arithmetic," "Outlines in Psychology," 

etc. ; and Professor of Philosophy, and Teacher 

of English Grammar and Criticism, in 

the Central Normal College 






APR SOI 896 ! 

4 %A 



%%w 



DANVILLE, INDIANA 

INDIANA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1896 






RIGDON'S 

Grammar of the English Sentence and Introduction to 

Composition . 85 c. 

English Grammar For Beginners 40 c. 

English Grammar for the Common School . . . . 60 c. 

Outlines in Grammar and Discussions of the Infinite Verbs 25 c. 

Analysis of the English Sentence with Diagrams . . 75 c. 

Methods in Arithmetic 25 c. 

Outlines in Psychology . . . . 25 c. 



oi*io 



Copyright, 1891, 1896, by Jonathan Rigdon. 



&o^dlA 



o^o 



Notfajooti $regg : 
J. S. dishing & Co. — Berwick & Smith. 
Boston, Mass., U.S.A. 



PREFACE. 



To the writer of a book of this grade, a knowledge 
of the matter it is to contain, although indispensable, 
is of comparatively little importance. He is at every 
step confronted by the most complex and the most 
vital of educational problems. Others could furnish 
him the matter for his book, but he must solve the 
problem for himself. He must keep in mind that 
he is writing for children just beginning to learn 
how to think systematically; he must know not 
only the logical development of his subject, but the 
natural order in which the child's mind grasps it; 
he must be ever mindful that the final end to be 
attained is complex, not simple, — it is not only pro- 
ficiency in the use of language, but ability to think ; 
and often in the presentation of the subject he must 
resort to methods or means, which from the adult's 
standpoint are not valuable as results, if he may 
thereby interest the child to push on toward the 
ends sought. This is something of the difficulty 
that presents itself to the writer of a book for chil- 
dren. The author of this little book thus states the 



IV PREFACE. 

problem, not to show how great is his solution, but 
as a kind of excuse for not solving it at all. He 
hopes, however, that the book will aid the teacher 
in making the subject of English Grammar so inter- 
esting to his pupils that they shall desire to know 
more of it, and to master the greatest and the finest 
of all the arts, — the art of speech. 

JONATHAN RIGDON. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

I. PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS 1 

The Sentence 1 

Subject and Predicate 2 

Parts of Speech 4 

The Verb 9 

Capital Letters 16 

Punctuation 17 

II. PARTS OF SPEECH 19 

The Noun 19 

Classes of Nouns 20 

Properties of Nouns 21 

Person 23 

Number 23 

Gender . . 25 

Case 27 

Parsing of Nouns 34 

The Pronoun 36 

Classes of Pronouns 37 

Sub-Classes of Pronouns 38 

Properties of Pronouns 39 

Declension of Pronouns 40 

Parsing of Pronouns 42 

Outline of Substantives (Nouns and Pronouns) . . 46 

Syntax of Nouns and Pronouns 47 

The Adjective 51 

Classes of Adjectives 51 

The Predicate Adjective 55 

The Resultant Adjective 55 

Comparison of Adjectives 57 

Parsing of the Adjective 58 

v 



VI CONTENTS. 

II. PARTS OF SPEECH : The Adjective. — Continued, page 

Outline of the Adjective 59 

Syntax of Adjectives 60 

The Verb 62 

Classes of Verbs 62 

List of Irregular Verbs 67 

Uses of the Auxiliaries 69 

Properties of Verbs 71 

Voice v 71 

Mode 73 

Tense 73 

Signs of the Tenses in Each of the Modes . 75 

Person and Number 76 

Inflection of Verbs 76 

Parsing of Verbs 81 

Outline of Verbs 82 

Syntax of Verbs 83 

The Adverb 85 

Classes of Adverbs 85 

Comparison of Adverbs 87 

Parsing of Adverbs 87 

Outline of Adverbs 89 

Syntax of Adverbs 89 

The Preposition 90 

Terms of Relation 90 

Parsing of Prepositions 91 

Syntax of Prepositions 92 

The Conjunction 94 

Parsing of Conjunctions 95 

Syntax of Conjunctions 96 

The Interjection 97 

Syntax of Interjections 97 

III. INFINITE VERBS (Infinitives and Participles) ... 98 

IV. RULES OF SYNTAX 101 

V. ANALYSIS 104 

Classification of Elements 105 

Classification of Sentences 106 

Program for Oral and Written Analysis .... 108 

Diagrams 109 

Written Analysis 110 



LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 



To the Teacher. — It must be admitted that children are often 
hurried into the study of technical Grammar before they have suf- 
ficient thought development. Bad results follow, of course. From 
the examination of a considerable number of language books, how- 
ever, I am convinced that a greater mistake is made, and more fre- 
quently, in underestimating the thought power of children. In 
conversing with children of from eight to eleven, I find that aside 
from my superiority in technical knowledge, the parallelism be- 
tween their thought and mine is more striking than the contrast. 
For the most part, language books are too simple. They seem to 
be based upon the supposition that children have never had any 
thoughts, and have never used any language before entering school 
and taking up this particular book. On the contrary, they are 
quite good thinkers, have very creditable vocabularies, and have 
never been known to hesitate in expressing their thoughts. Too 
many teachers of children strive to impart much technical knowl- 
edge in such a way as to require no thought. This is unnatural, 
for it is forcing upon children that which they have none of, and 
depriving them of doing that which they might do quite well. 
Children always respect and attach a certain dignity to whatever 
requires a reasonable effort, and think that whatever is too simple 
is silly. They are right. Children do not like to be " talked 
down" to. Who does ? It is naughty but nevertheless instructive 
to see and hear a girl of twelve mimicking her professor of forty in 
his ridiculous, unnatural, and unnecessary efforts to bring himself 
down to her level. 

The author has often been asked the perplexing question, at 
what age children should begin a somewhat systematic language 
study leading up to Grammar. This question cannot be answered 
definitely by giving the age in years. The author has tried, how- 
ever, to deduce, from a tolerably complete knowledge of Grammar 

vii 



Vlll LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

and Psychology, the amount of mental development necessary for 
beginning the study, and, as his answer, submits the first lesson in 
this book. If the children, with of course the aid of the teacher, 
can grasp the thought of this first lesson, they are ready for the 
work. These thirty lessons properly mastered will prepare any 
child for taking up the study of Elementary Grammar. 

Insist upon correct expression. Give abundant opportunity for 
practice. But while our immediate aim is the formation of correct 
habits of speech by moving along the line of least resistance, let us 
bear in mind that the final utility of this, as of any other study, 
lies in the development it accomplishes. 



LESSON L — THOUGHTS AND LANGUAGE. 

As we see and hear and come in contact with the 
things of the world, our minds have thoughts about 
them. We desire to express these thoughts. That 
is, we desire to tell them to our friends, so they may 
think as we think. It is mind, the ability to have 
thoughts, together with power to express them, that 
makes man higher than the beasts. This also makes a 
great and good man superior to a weak and worth- 
less one. This is the reason why we are in school, 
and why we are willing to work at our lessons. We 
desire to improve our minds, to be able to have more 
thoughts and better ones, and to express them to 
our friends. When we express our thoughts we use 
language. In order, then, that we may express our 
thoughts in the best manner, it will be necessary for 
us to make a study of language and to make an effort 
to use it correctly. We shall find this a very inter- 
esting study. It is also a very profitable one, for 
nothing that we can acquire will be ivorth more to us 
than the ability to speak and write correctly. This 



STATEMENTS. IX 

we may learn in a very short time, or it may take us 
a very long time. The time will depend upon how 
hard we try to put into practice what we learn. It 
would be a good thing just here for each one to 
promise himself that he will never use a wrong ex- 
pression when he knows the right one. 

What is the mind ? What makes us have thoughts ? When 
we have a thought, what do we desire to do with it ? Why ? 
What is it to express a thought ? What makes man higher than 
the beasts ? What makes some men greater than others ? Why 
do we go to school and study ? What is it to improve our minds ? 
What do we use when we express our thoughts ? What is lan- 
guage ? Why should we study language ? In what way may we 
learn to speak correctly in the shortest time ? What ought each 
one to promise himself ? How many are willing to make that 
promise ? 

LESSON II. — STATEMENTS. 

Language is made up of statements and questions ; 
as, — 

1. My horse is black. 

2. The boys are happy. 

3. O, I lost my pencil ! 

4. Is your horse black ? 

5. Are the girls happy ? 

6. Yesterday was Sunday. 

7. To-morrow will be Tuesday. 

8. We came to Indianapolis yesterday^ 

9. We shall go to Ohio to-morrow. 

10. George and Tom are Mary's brothers. 

11. The Creator of the world is God. 

Either a statement or a question is called a sen- 
tence. 



X LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

(a) What word in the first sentence begins with a capii 
letter ? Does the word my always begin with a capital letter ? 
It does not in the third sentence. Then, when should my begin 
with a capital letter ? What word in the second sentence begins 
with a capital ? Does the word the always begin with a capital ? 
It does not in the fifth sentence. But in the eleventh sentence the 
first the does, and the second does not. When should the word the 
begin with a capital letter ? What is true of the and my is true of 
all words. When, then, does any word begin with a capital letter ? 
(Here when the answer is given in the proper form, the teacher 
should write it on the board and require the class to copy it. Then 
he should call their attention to a sufficient number of sentences to 
show its correctness. Also, the teacher should draw from the class, 
write upon the board, and require them to copy, general directions 
for using capitals in such words as, O and I in (3) ; Sunday and 
Tuesday in (6) and (7) ; Indianapolis and Ohio in (8) and (9) ; 
George, Tom, and Mary in (10) ; and Creator and God in (11). ) 

(6) What do we call the mark at the end of the first sentence ? 
You may step to the board and make a period. In what other 
places do we find periods in these sentences ? Then where should 
a period be used ? (When the proper answer is given, write it on 
the board and require the class to copy it. Proceed in the same 
manner with the other punctuation marks.) 



LESSON in. — WRITTEN EXERCISES. 

When the teacher thinks it best to do so, he will 
of course make two recitations out of any one lesson, 
the first oral and the second written. 

1. Write a statement about flowers. 

2. Write a statement about a bird. 

3. Write a statement about a dog. 

4. Write a statement about a book. 

5. Write a statement about your post office. 

6. Write a statement about your nearest town. 

7. Ask a question about the stove. 



IS AND ARE. XI 

8. Ask a question about our next lesson. 

9. Ask a question about your schoolmate. 

10. Ask a question about Sunday. 

11. Ask a question about some city. 

12. Ask a question about Indiana. 

(a) Write the answers to your own questions. 

(6) Now, before you show your work to your teacher, you may 
look over it and correct it. See that you have used your capital 
letters and punctuation marks correctly. 

Of course, at this point, the teacher will have to 
correct errors in the use of verbs, merely by telling 
the class what is the proper one to use in each par- 
ticular case. 

LESSON IV. — IS AND ARE. 

(a) Anything we can think about is an object ; as, 
state, boy, girl, stove, Boston, love, Grod. 

(J) Statements and questions are about objects. 
(V) Use is to make a statement about one object; as, — 

George is well. 

The slate is on the desk. 

The girl is happy. 

QcT) Use are to make a statement about more than 
one object ; as, — 

The trees are green. 
The horses are lame. 
The pencils are in the desk. 

(e) Use is to ask a question about one object; as, — 

Is the bottle full ? 
Is the ground wet ? 
Is the fence strong ? 



Xll LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

(/) Use are to ask a question about more than one 

object ; as, — 

Are the rocks large ? 
Are the papers torn ? 
Are the dogs mad ? 

1. What is an object ? Name three objects we can see. Name 
two objects we can tonch. Name one object we can hear. Name 
four objects we can only think about. 

2. What are statements about ? What are questions about ? 

3. When do we use is in a statement ? 

4. When do we use are in a statement ? 

5. When do we use is in a question ? 

6. When do we use are in a question ? 

LESSON V.~ IS AND ARE. 

Fill each blank with is or are. 

1. The dog cross. 

2. the grass green ? 

3. The apple ripe. 

4. the goose fat ? 

5. The girls happy. 

6. the children well ? 

7. The baby asleep. 

8. your fingers cold ? 

9. The ducks swimmingc 

10. The boxes empty. 

11. The bottles full. 

12. the pitcher broken ? 

13. the book torn ? 

14. My feet cold. 

15. the dishes clean ? 



IS AND ABE. Xlli 

LESSON YI. — IS AND ARE, 

Rewrite each sentence so that is may be changed to 

are, or are to is. 

1. The stove is hot. 

2. The letters are lost. 

3. The picture is on the table. 

4. The benches are made of wood. 

5. The goose is dead. 

6. Are the matches in the box ? 

7. Is the peach ripe ? 

8. Is the mouse in the trap ? 

9. Are the cities old? 
10. Is the child sick ? 

LESSON VII. — IS AND ARE. 
(a) Use is or are to write a statement about — 

(1) A tree. (3) My desk. 

(2) The book. (4) The floor. 

(5) Mice. 

(V) Use is or are to ask a question about — 

(1) A picture. (3) Chicago. 

(2) Men. (4) The pencils. 

(5) The colts. 

LESSON VUL — IS AND ARE. 

(a) Use is in statements beginning with he or she. 

(5) Use are in statements beginning with we, you, or 
they. 

(<?) In questions, is should come just before he or she. 

(cT) In questions, are should come just before we, 
you, or they. 



XIV LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

Fill the blanks with is or are. 

1. He a good boy. 

2. She in the garden. 

3. she studying her lesson ? 

4. he ready to go ? 

5. They waiting for us. 

6. You mistaken about it. 

7. We going' to town. 

8. we to stay with you ? 

9. you coming to see us ? 

10. they with the children ? 

LESSON IX. — IS AND ARE. 

(a) Use is or are in a statement beginning with — 
(1) he, (2) she, (3) they, (4) you, (5) we. 

(6) Ask a question with is or are followed by — 

(1) he, (2) she, (3) you, (4) we, (5) they. 

(<?) Change each statement into a question. 
(d) Change each question into a statement. 

LESSON X. — WAS AND WERE. 

(a) Use was in making a statement about one object. 

(£) Use were in making a statement about more than 
one object. 

(<?) Use was in asking a question about one object. 

(cT) Use were in asking a question about more than 
one object. 

(J.) Fill each blank with was or were. 

1. The tree very tall. 

2. the book found ? 



MAKING SENTENCES. XV 

3. The forks in the box. 

4. the children hurt ? 

5. He in town to-day. 

6. she with her brother ? 

7. You here in time. 

8. We with the children. 

9. They running a race. 

10. we invited ? 

11. you asked about it? 

12. they in earnest ? 

13. I younger then. 

(1?) Change each statement into a question, and 
each question into a statement. 

LESSON XL — MAKING SENTENCES. 

(a) Make each group of words into a statement. 

1. apple, ripe, the, is. 

2. were, children, the, asleep. 

3. new, the, was, book. 

4. are, the, sweet, very, flowers. 

5. the, eating, pigs, were, corn. 

6. away, the, was, fox, running, sly. 

(6) Make each group of words into a question. 

1. pen, bad, the, is. 

2. the, white, is, mouse. 

3o large, pretty, was, the, doll. 

4. horses, lame, the, were. 

5. were, pencils, buying, boys, the. 

6. after, fox, hen, the, the, was. 



XVI LANGUAGE FOB BEGINNERS. 

LESSON XII. — HAS AND HAVE. 

Use has in 7naking a statement about one object ; as, 

The boy has a book. 

Use has in asking a question about one object; as, 

Has the boy a book ? 

Use have in making a statement about more than one 

object ; as, — 

The girls have their lessons. 

Use have in asking a question about more than one 

object; as, — 

Have the girls their lessons ? 
(a) Fill each blank with has or Aa?;e. 

1. The man a horse. 

2. The girls new slates. 

3. Trees leaves. 

4. The chair no back. 

5. The tables no drawers. 

6. The barrels no heads. 

7. The bottles corks. 

8. The slate no frame. 

9. The pen a sharp point. 

10. Houses doors. 

11. the book a back ? 

12. the trees any leaves ? 

' 13. the boxes lids ? 

(6) Change each statement into a question, and 
each question into a statement. 



THIS, THAT, THESE, AND THOSE. xvii 

LESSON XIII. — HAS AND HAVE. 

Use has in making a statement beginning with he or 
she. 

Use have in making a statement beginning with I, 
you, we, or they. 

In questions, use has /ws£ before he or she. 

j&i questions, use have just before I, you, we, or they. 

(a) Fill each blank with has or have. 

1. He my pencil. 

2. I his knife. 

3. She a good lesson. 

4. he found his slate ? 

5. we aided you ? 

6. They lost their books. 

7. You seen us. 

8. I your place ? 

9. She come. 

10. they gone home ? 

(£) Change each statement into a question, and 
each question into a statement.. 

LESSON XIV.— THIS, THAT, THESE, AND THOSE. 

Use this or that to point out one object. 

This jjoints out a nearer object, and that points out 
one that is farther away. 

Use these and those to point out more than one object 

These points out nearer objects, and those points out 
objects that are farther away. 

1. This knife is sharp. 

2. That book on your desk is torn. 



XV111 LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

3. These slates are broken. 

4. These lessons are easy. 

5. That knife has sharp blades. 

6. Those trees are green. 

7. This hammer has a handle. 

8. Those pigeons have wings. 

(a) Rewrite each sentence, changing this to these, 
these to this, that to those, or those to that. 

LESSON XV. — THIS, THA T, THESE, AND THOSE. 

(a) In each sentence use this, that, these, or those, 
and make a statement about — 

(1) an apple in your hand, (2) an apple on 
the tree, (3) the book in your desk, (4) the book 
in the teacher's desk, (5) the house you recite in, 
(6) the house you live in, (7) the windows here, 
(8) the windows at home. 

(6) Change each statement into a question. 

LESSON XVI. — SENTENCE WRITING. 

(a) Rewrite these sentences, using they in place of 
he, she, or it. 

1. He is my brother. 6. He has some apples. 

2. It was a mad dog. 7. She has a new book. 

3. She is my cousin. 8. Has he been with you? 

4. He has our ball. 9. Has she seen the pencil? 

5. It has a stem. 10. Has it gone away ? 

(J) Change each statement to a question, and each 
question to a statement. 



SENTENCES. XIX 

LESSON XVII. — SENTENCE WRITINCx. 

Rewrite these sentences, using we for I, and us for 

me, 

1. I am sitting by him. 

2. He went with me to town. 

3. She brought me some oranges. 

4. Where was I yesterday? 

5. Did you tell me a story? 

6. Was I to stay with him ? 

7. He brought me some books. 

8. Am I to go alone ? 

9. He has not seen me. 

10. They have come with me. 

LESSON XVIII. — FILLING BLANKS. 
Fill each blank with am, is, are, has, have, was, or were. 

1. I ready to recite. 

2. Snow on the ground last winter. 

3. It gone away. 

4. The birds — — here last summer. 

5. They gone farther south. 

6. The stars bright last night. 

7. Every day twenty-four hours. 

8. Last night there stars in the sky 

9. I to recite next ? 

10. you filled all the blanks ? 

LESSON XIX. — SENTENCES. 

Use sees, goes, does, runs, and writes in speaking of 
one object, and see, go, do, run, and write, in speaking 
of more than one. 



XX LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

1. The child sees the picture. 

2. The mice see the cat. 

3. The boy goes to school. 

4. The girls go to school. 

5. The horse does his work. 

6. The ants do lay up a store. 

7. The girl runs fast. 

8. The boys run faster. 

9. The boy writes well. 
10. The girls write better. 

(a) Change the (1), (3), (5), (7), and (9) to 
statements about more than one object. 

(6) Change the (2), (4), (6), (8), and (10) to 
statements about one object. 

LESSON XX. — FILLING BLANKS. 

(a) Fill each blank with see, sees, go, goes, do, does, 
run, runs, write, or writes. 

1. The spider some flies. 

2. And the flies the spider. 

3. A good boy to school. 

4. Good children to school. 

5. A good girl her work. 

6. Good girls their work. 

7. The pig the pups. 

8. The pups after the pig. 

9. George a letter to his sisters. 

10. His sisters a letter to George. 

LESSON XXL — HAS, HAVE, AND HAD. 

These words are used ivith seen, gone, done, written. 
They are not used with saw, went, did, wrote. Such 



HAS, HAVE, AND HAD. XXI 

expressions as 1 seen him, and He done it, are in- 
correct. We should say, I saw him and He did 
it. 

Also, such expressions as I have saw him, and She 
has wrote a letter, are incorrect. We should say, / 
have seen him, or / saw him ; She has written a letter, 
or She wrote a letter. 

(a) Fill each blank with a suitable word. 

1. He has a letter to me. 

2. They have their 1 work. 

3. She had the picture. 

4. We had to school. 

(J) Change each statement into a question. 
(e) Express the thought of each statement with- 
out using has, have, or had. 

LESSON XXII. — HAS, HAVE, AND HAD. 

(a) Fill each blank with a suitable word. 

1. he gone back home ? 

2. - they gone before you came ? 

3. she done her work well ? 

4. he done it before Tom left ? 

5. they seen the picture ? 

6. you seen it before you bought it ? 

7. we written your letter ? 

8. he written it before I saw him ? 

(6) Change each question into a statement, 
(c) Ask each question without using has, have, or 
had. 



XX11 



LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 



LESSON XXIII. — /, ME; WE, US; HE, HIM; 
SHE, HER; THEY, THEM, 

It is correct to say — 

1. I am going. 3. She is going. 

2. He is going. 4. We are going. 

5. He, she, and I are going. 

6. He and I are going. 

7. She and I are going. 

, 8. He and she are going. 
9. They and I are going. 
10. We and they are going. 

(a) Change each statement into a question. 

We should never use such expressions as, Him and 
me are going, Him and her are singing. 



1. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 



(6) Fill each blank with i", we, he, she, or they : • 

- right ? 



is well, 
am well, 
was sick, 
am tired, 
were busy. 



6. Am- 

7. Was 

8. Is — 



9. Were 
10. Were 



sure ? 

•? 

mistaken ? 
honest ? 



LESSON XXIV. — /, WE, HE, SHE, THEY. 



It is correct to say — 

1. It is I. 4. It is we. 

2. It is he. 5. It is they. 

3. It is she. 6. It was I. 



7. It was he. 

8. It was she. 

9. It was we. 



(a) Change each statement into a question. 



/, WE, HE, SHE, THEY. xxiii 

(5) Fill each blank with /, ive, he, she, or they. 
1. Is it ? No, it is . 



2. Am with him ? No, is with him. 

3. Were invited ? No, were invited. 

4. Who were ■ ? were strangers. 

5. Did you think was George ? 

6. Mary thought was . 

7. thought were . 

8. Who broke it ? It was — — . 

9. thinks are — —. 

10. know am not ~. 



LESSON XXV. — /, WE, HE, SHE, THEY. 

Fill each blank with I, we, he, she, or they. 

1. are going to school. 

2. and I like to study. 

3. and are studying hard. 

4. Mary and are classmates. 

5. Do George and go to school ? 

6. May Henry and have the book ? 

7. You and are of the same age. 

8. and have been to town. 

9. are older than is. 

10. is younger than are. 

11. are heavier than are. 

12. Are George and of the same age ? 

13. Who are there ? It is Tom and . 

14. Who were talking ? and . 



XXIV LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

LESSON XXYI. — ME, US, HER, HIM, THEM. 

These words must not be used to complete is, are, 
was, or were. 

They must be used to complete such words as see, 
strike, find, and send. Thus we should say, It is I, 
It is we, It is he; and, He sees me, I found him, We 
sent them. 

Fill each blank with me, us, him, her, or them. 
1'. George found and . 

2. They sent and to school. 

3. The teacher sees Mary and . 

4. We see the teacher and . 

5. The boy struck and . 



LESSON XXVII. — /, ME; WE, US; HE, HIM; 
THEY, THEM. 

(a) Use each of these words in a sentence : /, we, 
he, she, they. 

(6) Use each of these words in a sentence : Me, 
us, him, her, them. 

(tf) Write a sentence containing I and him ; one 
containing we and her ; one containing he and them ; 
and one containing they and me. 

LESSON XXVIII. — /, ME; WE, US; HE, HIM; 
SHE, HER; THEY, THEM. 

After such words as by, to, for, with, use me, us, him, 
her, them. 

After such words as by, to, for, with, never use I, we, 
he, she, they 



/, ME; WE, US; ETC. XXV 

Say, She sat by John and me ; not, She sat by 
John and I. 

Say, She spoke to him and me ; not, She spoke to 
he and I. 

Say, It is for us and them ; not, It is for me and 
they. 

Say, He lives with them and me ; not, He lives 
with they and I. 

Fill each blank with I, me, we, us, he, him, she, her, 
they, or them : — 

1. stands by Willie and . 

2. Willie and stand by . 

3. Will you sit by and ? 

4. and will sit by . 

5. and are talking to and . 

6. speaks to . 

7. speak to . 

8. Is sending for ? 

9. are sending for Susie and . 

10. are going with . 

11. Is g°i n g with ? 



12. am going with Frank and . 

LESSON XXIX. — /, ME; WE, US; HE, HIM; 
SHE, HER; THEY, THEM. 

With such words as may, can, must, shall, and will, 
use I, we, he, she, and they. 

After the word let, use me, us, him, her, them. 

Say, May she and I go ? not, May her and me go ? 

Say, Let them and us stay ; not, Let they and we 
stay. 



XXVI LANGUAGE FOR BEGINNERS. 

(#) Fill each blank with i", me, we, us, he, him, she, 
her, they, or them. 

1. Will and go ? 

2. Josie and can take it. 

3. Shall assist you ? 

4. Let Nannie and have it. 

5. Can lift the stick ? 

6. Let and try it. 

7. Must and be still ? 

8i Let Bert and read it. 

9. Let Mary and help you. 

10. May and see the slate ? 

(5) Change each statement to a question, and each 
question to a statement. 

LESSON XXX. — FILLING BLANKS. 

Fill each blank with I, me, we, us, he, him, she, her, 
they, or them. 

1. spoke to about . 

2. are older than am. 

3. Let write to for . 



4. sent and for and . 

5. see sitting by . 

6. sits by and . 

7. Do see with ? 

8. Will let send for ? 

9. Must call for ? 

10. May let send to for ? 

(a) Change each statement to a question, and each 
question to a statement. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

FOR BEGINNERS. 

THE SENTENCE. 

1. We have already learned that, when we think 
anything which we want our playmates or teachers 
to know, we must say it to them in words. Then 
they will think as we do. Lucy may see Willie cry- 
ing because he has lost his ball. Then she will have 
two thoughts in her mind. One thought will be of 
what Willie is doing ; and the other, of why he is 
doing it. Now if she wants her mother to have these 
two thoughts, she will say : — 

Willie has lost his ball, 

and 

he is crying about it. 

2. Here Lucy has not only used words, but she has 
put them together so that they express her thoughts 
to her mother. That is, she has used a Sentence for 
each thought. She could have used all these words 
without making Sentences. She might have said to 
her mother : — 

Crying is has and about 

ball 

lost Willie it his he. 

1 



Z ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

3. Here she has used the same words as before, 
but she has arranged them so that they express no 
thoughts. She has not made Sentences out of them. 
What, then, is a sentence ? We must learn the defi- 
nition of it, and remember it; for it is the sentence 
that we shall study as long as we study Grammar. 

Definitions. 

(1) A Sentence is a group of words that expresses 
a thought 

(2) Grammar is the study of the sentence. 

4. Exercise. 

I. Tell which of the following groups of words are 
sentences. Why ? 

II. Make the other groups into sentences. 

(1) John Maynard was a brave man. 

(2) wild trees The monkeys tall climb. 

(3) a oak squirrel saw black an on tree I. 

(4) The suspension bridge extends across the Niagara River. 

(5) The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

(6) heavens created beginning the In the earth God and the. 

SUBJECT AND PEEDIOATE. 

5. If we examine closely any one of our thoughts, 
we shall see that it has two parts. First, we must 
have a thing to think about, and then we must think 
something about the thing. Thus, if we are told to 
think some thought, we must first choose something 
to think about. Let us take this book. Now we have 
something to think about, but our thought is only 
half done. What can we think about this book? We 
might think a great many things about it, but for one 



THE SENTENCE. 6 

thought we may think it is new. Now if we put the 
two parts of our thought together, and express it in 
words, we shall have the sentence, — 
This book | is new. 

6. And we see that the sentence also has two parts. 
One part of the sentence stands for the thing we think 
about, and the other part stands for what we think 
about that thing. In Grammar we call these parts, 
Subject and Predicate. So now we must learn to 
define these words. 

7. Definitions. 

I. The Subject is the part of the sentence that 
stands for what we think about. 

II. The Predicate is the part of the sentence that 
stands for what we think. 

8. Sometimes there will be but one word in the 
subject and but one or two in the predicate ; as, — 

Boys play. 

Sugar is sweet. 

Bears growl. 

He is mistaken. 

Birds sing. 

9. But in most sentences there are several other 
words put in to explain the subject and predicate; 
as, — 



Beautiful marble 

A hungry little mouse 

The tallest tree in the lawn 

Some little boys 



is brought from Italy. 
gnawed a hole in the bag. 
is an old English oak. 
are too lazy to learn. 



10. Now in order that we may talk about the parts 
of the sentence, we shall call the subject, taken with- 
out any of the words that explain it, the Simple Sub- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOE BEGINNERS. 



ject. And the subject, together with all the words 
that explain it, we may call the Complete Subject ; or, 
to use the words of the larger books, let us call it the 
Complex Subject. 

11. The predicate taken by itself is the Simple 
Predicate ; and, with all the words that explain it, it 
is the Complex Predicate. 

12. In the sentences above, the line is drawn be- 
tween the Complex Subjects and the Complex Pred- 
icates; and the Simple Subjects and Simple Predicates 
are printed in italic letters. 

13. Exercise. 

I. Write these sentences on your slates, and draw 
a line between the complex subjects and the complex 
predicates. 

II. Point out the simple subjects and the simple 
predicates by drawing a line under each. 

(1) Hail is frozen rain. 

(2) The good old man is dead. 

(3) Robert Fulton invented the steamboat. 

(4) A laughing child was chasing the butterfly. 

(5) The ticking of the clock is the only sound to be heard. 

PAETS OP SPEECH. 

14. Now we have learned what a sentence is. We 
know it is such an arrangement of words as will 
express a thought. We have learned also that every 
sentence must have a subject and a predicate. And we 
have seen that there may be many other words in 
a sentence besides the simple subject and the simple 
predicate. Now we must learn something about all 



*ds 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 5 

the words that may be put into sentences. But that 
will be all the words of our language. There are so 
many of them that we should never get through 
learning them one at a time. So we must try to 
throw them all into a few groups or classes. And 
then when we learn something about a class, we shall 
know something of all the words in that class. We 
shall find that all the words in the largest dictionary 
are included in eight classes, called Parts of Speech. 
Then let us remember that by Parts of Speech we only 
mean Classes of Words. Let us* remember also that 
it is the use of a word that tells us the part of speech, 
and that all words having the same use belong to the 
same part of speech. This will make us use our 
minds in thinking about the words. We cannot tell 
the part of speech of a word by merely looking at it. 
We must see it in its sentence, and think about the 
use it performs. Now let us try to find the different 
uses of words, or the eight parts of speech. This we 
can easily do by studying the different uses of the 
words in the following sentences : — 

(1) Paul has a new hat. 

(2) He is now very happy. 

(3) Hattie and Helen lost their bonnets. 

(4) Oh ! the dog is sitting in the chair ! 

(5) In leaving hastily I left my watch on the table. 

(6) Sometimes we climb to the top of that mountain. 

15. Now if we examine the words Paul, hat, 
Hattie, Helen, bonnets, dog, chair, watch, table, top, 
and mountain, we shall see that they are all alike in 
one way. How are they alike ? They are all names. 
Paul, Hattie, and Helen are names of persons ; dog 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

is the name of an animal; hat, table, and mountain 
are names of things ; and top is the name of a part of 
a thing. But all of them are names. So we may 
put these and all other names in one class, for our 
first part of speech. Grammarians call them Nouns. 
Then let us try to remember that every name is a 
noun. 

16. Sometimes we can make others know what 
object we are talking about without naming it. Then 
we use another word in place of the name. In the 
second sentence we use he instead of Paul; in the 
third, their for the names Hattie and Helen ; and in 
the fifth and sixth we use I and we, so that we need 
not give the names of the persons referred to. These 
little words, and all others that are used in place of 
nouns, we put together in another class, and call them 
Pronouns. 

17. Before we can talk about the next part of 
speech, we must learn the meaning of the word 
modify. When one word points out or explains 
another, it is said to modify. New, in the first sen- 
tence, modifies the noun hat. Happy, in the second, 
modifies the pronoun he. The, in the fifth, and that, 
in the sixth, point out or modify the nouns table and 
mountain. All words, then, that modify nouns or 
pronouns will make another class, called Adjectives. 

18. Now we come to the part of speech that is the 
most difficult of all. It is the one that declares or 
asserts something of the subject, like has, is, lost, is 
sitting, left, and climb, in the sentences above. They 
are called Verbs. The verbs in our six sentences are 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

put in italic letters because they are the predicates. 
Sometimes, as in the second sentence, another word 
is taken with the verb to form the predicate. Let us 
not forget that the predicate of a sentence must always 
be a verb or contain one. And here we may remember 
also that the subject of a sentence is nearly always a 
noun or pronoun. 

19. We see that the word sometimes, in the sixth 
sentence, modifies the verb climb; that is, it tells 
ivhen or how often the climbing, takes place. And in 
the fifth, hastily describes the manner of the leaving. 
We have a great many such words used to tell the 
time, manner, or purpose of an action ; and since they 
commonly modify verbs, we call them Adverbs. Some- 
times they modify adjectives. In the second sentence, 
the adverb very modifies the adjective happy. Some- 
times, also, they modify other adverbs. Then let us 
remember that a word is an adverb when it modifies 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, so as to 

express TIME, MANNER, PURPOSE, or DEGREE. 

20. In the fourth sentence, the little word in tells 
us what the sitting has to do with the chair. If this 
word were left out of the sentence, we could not 
know that the sitting was in the chair. So we say 
that in shows the relation between the noun chair 
and the verb is sitting. In the fifth sentence, the 
word on shows the relation between the noun table 
and the verb left. Such little relation words gram- 
marians call Prepositions. The word that comes after 
the preposition is always a noun or pronoun, and is 
called its object. The word that comes before it is 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

commonly a verb or a noun, but not always. Then 
we may say, A preposition is a word that shows the 
relation between its object and some other word. 

21. In the third sentence, and joins Hattie and 
Helen together, or connects them. Such connective 
words are called Conjunctions. A conjunction is a 
word that joins together sentences or parts of a sentence. 

22. The last part of speech includes all words like 
Oh, in the fourth sentence, used to express surprise 
or some other sudden feeling. They are called Inter- 
jections. An interjection is a word used to express 
some strong feeling. 

From these explanations we can easily understand 
the following — 

23. Definitions of the Parts of Speech. 

(1) A Noun is a name : Mary, Boston, Q-arfield. 

(2) A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun : 
you, he, I, we, they ; who, that. 

(3) An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun 
or pronoun : beautiful pictures, crooked roads, bad 
boys, that apple, the man ; he is honest. 

(4) A Verb is a word used to express action or 
being : run, play, work, is, are, was, were. 

(5) An Adverb is a ivord used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb : He walks lazily ; 
exceedingly beautiful ; most affectionately. 

(6) A Preposition is a word used to show the 
relation between its object and some other word : He 
comes to school; She studies the history of our 
country. 



THE VERB. 9 

(7) A Conjunction is a ivord used to connect 
sentences, or parts of a sentence : I go, but I return ; 
Alice and Martha; out of the yard and into the 
woods. 

(8) An Interjection is a word used to express 
strong feeling : Oh ! Alas ! 

24. Exercise. 

I. Point out the subjects and predicates, simple and 
complex, in the following sentences. 

II. Tell the part of speech of every word. 

(1) The sun shines through the window, on the floor. 

(2) The children run and play in the sunshine. 

(3) The ball struck Francis or Henry in the face. 

(4) Pshaw ! Grammar is too difficult for little boys and girls. 

(5) But, alas ! nothing but hard work will accomplish anything 

good or great. 

(6) The story of Joan of Arc is highly interesting. 

(7) I will relate it briefly to you. 

(8) She sings very well ; but, oh! she is so lazy. 

THE VEEB. 

25. It will be much better for us to stop right here 
and learn a little more about the Verb ; because every 
sentence has a verb in it, and we must know some- 
thing of the Verb before we can understand the "other 
words in the sentence. 

26. First, if we look at the sentences, 

He plays, 
I play, 
They play, 

we shall see that the form of the verb, — that is, 
whether it ends with s or not, — depends upon its 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

subject. Such verbs are said to be limited by their sub- 
jects, and are called Finite Verbs. So we may say, — 

27. A Finite Verb is one whose form depends upon 
its subject. 

28. But we have other verbs, whose form remains 
the same for all subjects. These are the verbs that 
have the word to before them, or those that generally 
end in ing ; as, to play, playing. These have the 
same form for all subjects ; as, — 

I want him to play ; 
He wants me to play ; 
We want them to play. 

Or, 

I saw him playing ; 
He saw me playing ; 
We saw them playing. 

29. Since these verbs are not limited by their sub- 
jects, they are called Infinite Verbs. Then we may 
say,— 

30. An Infinite Verb is one whose form does not 
depend upon its subject. 

31. There are two forms of the infinite verb, — the 
infinitive and the participle. 

32.* The Infinitive is the form of the verb that begins 
with to ; as, — 

to play, to sing, to go, to see. 

33. The Participle is the form of the verb that ends 
in ING ; as, — 

playing, singing, going, seeing. 

(a) There is another form of the participle which we shall learn 
some other time. 



THE VERB. 11 

34. In the two sentences, 

The horse trots, 

The horse kicked the boy, 

the verbs " trots " and " kicked" both express action. 
But there is this difference, — " trots " shows that the 
action affects nothing but the subject, horse, while the 
verb "kicked" shows that the action of the subject, 
horse, affects the object, boy. The first is said to be 
intransitive, the second transitive. 

35. A Transitive Verb is one that represents the 
action of an agent as affecting an object. 

36. An Intransitive Verb is one that represents the 
action or being as affecting nothing but the agent. 

37. A transitive verb is said to be incomplete. The 

sentence, 

John laughs, 

expresses a complete thought. But if I should say, 

John broke, 

you would want to ask me, " Broke what? " That is, 
the transitive verb "broke" is incomplete, and requires 
an object to complete it. Thus, 

John broke the window. 

38. A word that thus completes a transitive verb 
is called an Objective Complement. 

39. One thing more we must learn here about 
verbs. The two sentences, 

That man farms, 
That man is a farmer, 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

may express the same thought. But note the differ- 
ence in the verbs. The verb " is" merely couples the 
attribute "farmer" to the subject " man" Hence 
it is called a Copulative Verb. But the verb u farms" 
contains the attribute it asserts of its subject. That 
is, it does not require another word to express the 
attribute, as the verb " is" does. Hence it is called 
an Attributive Verb. 

40. An Attributive Verb is one that contains the 
attribute it asserts of its subject ; as, — 

She reads. 

41. A Copulative Verb is one that couples to its sub- 
ject an attribute expressed by some other word ; as, — 

She is a reader. 
She is tall. 

42. You will observe that the copulative verb, like 
the transitive verb, is incomplete. A word that com- 
pletes a copulative verb is called an Attributive Com- 
plement.* 

(a) An attributive complement is commonly either a noun or an 
adjective ; as, Iron is a metal ; Iron is hard. 

43. Exercise. 

I. Tell which verbs are finite and which are infini- 
tives or participles ; which transitive and which in- 
transitive ; which copulative and which attributive. 

*The teacher will find it necessary to spend considerable time in 
repeating and illustrating these statements for the pupils. Here are 
strange and difficult words, and several of them. But we must have 
them, and we must have them right away; and I think it is better to 
call things by their right names, and give the true signification of 
terms, than to waste valuable time in talking baby talk to pupils that 
cease to care for it long before they begin the study of Grammar. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 13 

II. Point out the complements, and tell whether each 
objective or attributive, 

(1) Jack rang the bell. 

(2) Anna sews. 

(3) The coast is clear. 

(4) Oh, mother ! Come and see this flower ! 

(5) Jamie studies French. 

(6) A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

(7) The child wishes to see you. 

(8) Stars twinkle in the sky. 

(9) The morning air is pure and cool. 

(10) Do you see the baby laughing at you ? 

(11) I want you to be good children. 

(12) She wants me to learn to sing. 



GLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

44. A sentence may be used to declare a truth ; 

as, — 

He is tall. 

Then it is called a Declarative Sentence. It may be 
used to ask a question ; as, — 

7s he tall? 

Then it is an Interrogative Sentence. It may be 
exclaimed so as to express surprise ; as, — 

How tall he is! 

Then it is an Exclamatory Sentence. Or it may be 
used in ordering or commanding some one ; as, — 

Bring me a book. 

Then it is called an Imperative Sentence. So we may 
say: — 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

I. According to its use a sentence is ' 

(1) Declarative; 

(2) Interrogative; 

(3) Exclamatory; or 

(4) Imperative. 

45. We see also that a sentence may be formed so 
as to be a single statement ; as, — 

John studies diligently. 

This is called a Simple Sentence. Or we may take 
two or more single statements, independent of one 
another, and put them together so as to form one 
sentence ; as, — 

John studies diligently, and he learns very fast. 

This is called a Compound Sentence. Or two state- 
ments may be put together so that one depends upon 
the other ; as, — 

John learns very fast, because he studies diligently. 

This is called a Complex Sentence. Then we may 
say: — 

II. According to its form a sentence is — 

(1) Simple; 

(2) Compound; or 

(3) Complex. 

PHEASES. 

46. Sometimes a group of two or more words per- 
forms the use of a single part of speech ; as, — 

He came in haste. 



PHRASES. 15 

This is the same as 

He came quickly. 

That is a matter of importance, 
means 

That is an important matter. 

Such a group is called a Phrase; and since it always 
contains a preposition, it is called a Prepositional 
Phrase. It must also contain the object of the prep- 
osition, either a noun or a pronoun ; and it may con- 
tain several other words ; as, — 

She stood by the little old man. 

Let us remember that a prepositional phrase always 
has the use either of an adjective or of an adverb. 

47. There is another kind of phrases, called Verb 
Phrases, or Infinitives ; as, — 

to see, to run, to play, to write. 

These, too, are used as adjectives or as adverbs, some- 
times also as nouns. 

48. Then we may have these Classes of Phrases : — 

I. Prepositional Phrases. 

(a) Used as an adjective ; as, The report of the secretary. 

(b) Used as an adverb ; as, They live in luxury. 

II. Verb Phrases or Infinitives. 

(a) Used as an adjective; as, A book to read, an apple to eat. 

(b) Used as an adverb ; as, He lay down to rest. 

(c) Used as a noun ; as, To lie is a sin. 

49. It is not always easy to tell a verb phrase from 
a prepositional phrase, when they contain the word 
to. This rule will help us : Take away the word to, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 






and see what kind of a word we have left. If the 
remaining word is a noun or a pronoun, the phrase is 
prepositional. But if the remaining word is a verb, 
then the phrase is a verb phrase, or an infinitive. In 
the sentence — 

He came to town to see me, 

there are two phrases, — to town, and to see. What 
kind of phrases are they ? Let us see. Dropping the 
to from the first phrase, the word left is a noun. 
Then to town is a prepositional phrase. Dropping to 
from the second phrase, the remaining word, see, is a 
verb. Then to see is a verb phrase. 

50. Exercise. 

I. Tell 'what kind of a sentence each one is. 

II. Point out the subject and predicate, simple and 
complex. 

III. Tell the part of speech of each word. 

IV. Point out the phrases, and state the kind of 
each. 

(1) A little mouse bit me on the hand. 

(2) Where did you buy that book ? 

(3) The boy found the ball on the roof of the barn. 

(4) Peter Minuet was the first governor of the state of New 
York. 

(5) Look through this glass, and tell me what you see. 

(6) If he tells me, I shall believe it. 

51. Capital Letters. 

I. A Capital Letter should begin — 

(1) The first word of every sentence. 

(2) The first word of every line of poetry. 

(3) All proper nouns, proper adjectives, arid titles. 



PUNCTUATION. 17 

(4) Names of the days of the week and of the months of the year. 

(5) Names of the Supreme Being. 

(6) The pronoun I, and the interjection 0. 

PUNCTUATION. 

52. In Punctuation, or marking off the parts of a 
sentence, several little characters are used. 

53. Some marks are used at the end of the sen- 
tences ; such as, — 

The period 

The question mark ? 

The exclamation mark ! 

54. The Period is used at the end of a declarative 

or an imperative sentence ; as, — 

Mary saw the apple fall. 
Bring me a cup of water. 

55. The Question or Interrogation Mark is used at 
the end of an interrogative sentence ; as, — 

Would you like to speak well ? 

56. The Exclamation Mark is used at the end of an 

exclamatory sentence ; as, — 

How happy the children are ! 

57. Some marks are used within the sentence; 
as, — 

The period 

The comma , 

The semicolon ; 

The colon : 

58. The Period is used within the sentence after 
abbreviations ; as, Ind. for Indiana. 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(a) The period is used also after any expression used as a head- 
ing, and after figures or letters used to mark the sections or parts 
of a production. 

59. General Rule for the Comma. 

Use a comma when it will help to show the use of 
any part of the sentence. 

(1) It may be used to separate parts of the sen- 
tence having the same use ; as, — 

Intelligence, integrity, industry, are elements of success. 

(2) It may set off appositive, explanatory, paren- 
thetical, or introductory words, phrases, or clauses; 

as, — 

Dickens, the novelist. 

To tell the truth, I do not believe her. 

(3) It may mark the omission of the verb ; as, — 

The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool, what he 
abounds in. 

60. General Rule for the Semicolon. 

Use a semicolon between parts less closely connected 
than those separated by a comma ; as, — 

Improve every minute ; for time lost is lost forever. 

61. General Rule for the Colon. 

Use a colon before an explanatory part ; as, — 

The following persons were elected : President, John Doe ; 
Vice-President, Richard Roe. 

(a) You will soon learn to use all the punctuation marks cor- 
rectly by giving careful attention to punctuating your written pars- 
ing, your letters, and your compositions. 

(b) The teacher will explain other uses of capital letters, and 
other marks used in punctuation, as they are needed. 

62. We are now ready for a more careful study of 
each of the Parts of Speech. We shall begin with the 
Noun. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE NOUN. 

63. We have already learned that a noun is a name 
of an object But there are many other things for us 
to learn about nouns. Look at the nouns, — 

pen, river, railroad, ox, Tom; 
love, meanness, mind, truth, purity. 

The first five are names of objects that we could see 
or touch ; but the last five are names of objects that 
we can only think of. But they are all names, so 
they are nouns. 

64. Do not call the object itself a noun. What 
you hold in your hand is an object, not a noun; but 
the name of it, book, is a noun. 

65. But sometimes we find a thing that does not 

have any name, or has a name not so easily used as 

the thing itself ; as, -*-, *, a. Such little objects may 

be used in sentences just as their names would be 

used : — 

-=- is the sign of division. 
* is an asterisk. 
a is the first letter of the alphabet. 

66. And for convenience, such characters may be 
parsed as nouns. 

19 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

67. Exercise. 

I. Write on your slates twenty nouns that name 
objects which you can see, touch, hear, taste, or smell. 

II. Write ten nouns that' name objects which you can 
only think of. 

III. Write sentences in which you use all these 
nouns. 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

68. If we stop to think about it, we shall see that 
we have two ways of naming an object. 

69. (1) If we do not care to call particular atten- 
tion to the object itself, we may give it a general 
name that would apply to any other object of its 
class as well as to it ; as, — 

dog, city, hunter. 

Such names are called Common Nouns, because each 
is common to all the objects of the class named. Any 
dog may be called a dog ; any city, a city ; any hunter, 
a hunter. 

70. (2) If we do want to call particular attention 
to an object, we give it a 'particular name that distin- 
guishes it from the other objects of its class ; as, — 

Towser, Indianapolis, Daniel Boone. 

Such names are called Proper Nouns, because each is 
the property of its particular object. The name Towser 
points out a particular dog ; Indianapolis, a particular 
city ; Daniel Boone, a particular hunter. 

71. These two uses give us the two classes of nouns, 
Common and Proper. 



PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN. 21 

72. (1) A Common Noun is a name that may be 
applied to any object of a class ; as, ivoman, soldier, 
exhibition. 

73. (2) A Proper Noun is a name that distin- 
guishes its object from others of the same class ; as, 
Mary A. Livermore, General Sherman, The WorloVs 
Fair. 

74. Exercise. 

I. Tell which nouns are common, and which proper, 
and why. 

II. Write on your slates sentences containing these 
nouns : — 

Chicago, garden, girl, city, Mary Dow, rat, Clarence, Amazon, 
Brazil, jewelry, kindness, flock, Henry Ward Beecher, Wendell 
Phillips, T. De Witt Talmage, William E. Gladstone, Prince Bis- 
marck, Daniel W. Yoorhees, William T. Harris, James G. Blaine, 
preacher, statesman, orator, author, educator. 



PEOPEETIES OF THE NOUN. 

75. Nouns have ways of telling us four different 
things about the objects they stand for. 

76. (1) First a noun may tell us whether its object 
is speaking, is spoken to, or is spoken of; as, — 

I, Chester A. Arthur. 
Charles, come here. 
We stood on the bridge. 

The noun itself cannot tell us this ; but we learn it 
from the noun's relation to the other words in the 
sentence. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOE, BEGINNERS. 

77. (2) The second thing a noun tells us is 

whether it stands for one object or for more than one ; 

as, — 

boy, boys ; man, men; mouse, mice. 

This we can nearly always tell from the form of the 
noun itself. 

78. (3) The third thing a noun can tell is about 
the sex of its object. It may tell us that its object is 
oj the male sex ; as, — 

man, rooster, prince; 
of the female sex ; as, — 

woman, hen, princess; 
of neither sex ; as, — 

stove, house, tree. 

And a noun may tell us still more about sex. It may 
tell us that the sex of its object is not known ; as, — 

child, teacher; 

or that it stands for several objects, representing either 
sex or both ; as, — 

children, teachers. 

79. (4) The fourth thing a noun may tell us is the 
relation of its object to other things referred to in the 
sentence. This, too, the noun cannot always tell by 
itself. We nearly always learn it from the noun's 
position with reference to the other words in the 
sentence. Here are three sentences : — 

John's hat is new. 
John struck me. 
I struck John. 



PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN. 23 

In the first sentence, we know from the form of the 
noun Johns, that the boy John owned the hat. In 
the second, we know from the position of the words 
that the boy John did the striking. And from the 
position of the words in the third, we know that the 
boy John was the object that was struck. 

80. Now since nouns have means of telling us 
these four things, we say nouns have four properties, 
— Person, Number, Gender, and Case. We must study 
them separately. 

81. Person is that property of a noun which tells us 
tvhether its object is speaking, spoken to, or spoken of 
Hence there are three persons. 

82. The first denotes the speaker. 

83. The second denotes the person spoken to. 

84. The third denotes the person or thing spoken of 

I, Mollie Frank, do declare to you. 
Mary Hall, you are mistaken. 
Effie Adams heard her say it. 

(a) The first and second persons belong to names of persons 
only, or of things or animals spoken of as if they were persons. 

(b) Most nouns are of the third person. 

(c) To tell the person of a noun, you must see it in its sentence. 

85. Number is that property of the noun that tells us 
whether it represents one object or more than one ; as, — 

pin, pins ; fox, foxes ; man, men; thief, thieves. 

There are two numbers. 

86. The singular denotes one object. 

87. The plural denotes more than one. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

88. If you look at the nouns given above, you will 
see that they do not all form their plurals in the same 
way. 

89. Rules for forming the Plural. 

I. Most nouns form their plurals by adding s to the 
singular, or es when the sound of s will not unite with 
the singular; as, — 

fan, fans; hat hats; flower, flowers; 
trench, trenches; blush, blushes. 

(a) When a noun ends in y after a consonant, y changes to i 
before es is added ; as, mercy, mercies ; lady, ladies. 

(b) Some nouns, ending in/or/e, change the ending to v before 
es is added ; as, thief, thieves ; wife, wives. 

II. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the 
word itself; as, — 

goose, geese; man, men. 

90. Remarks on Number. 

(a) A few nouns have the same form for their plural as for their 
singular ; as, sheep, deer. In such cases we must tell the number 
from some other part of the sentence : The sheep was in the garden 
(one sheep). The sheep were in the garden (more than one). 

(fi) Some nouns have double plurals with different meanings ; 
as, brother, brothers or brethren ; cow, cows or kine. 

(c) Some nouns from foreign languages have both an English 
and a foreign plural ; as, cherub, cherubs or cherubim. 

(d) Some nouns have only the plural form ; as, pantaloons, 
tongs, shears. But some nouns having the plural form are singular ; 
as, ethics, physics, politics. 

(e) Some nouns have only the singular form ; as, prudence, 
meekness. 

(/) Form the plurals of letters, marks, figures, and signs, by 
adding the apostrophe and s ('s) ; as, x, x's ; 7, 7's ; +, +'s. 

(g) In compound words, pluralize the part that is described by 
the rest ; as, mouse-trap, mouse-traps; sister-in-law, sisters-in-law. 






PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN. 



25 



(h) There are several other peculiarities about number, which 
you may learn from the larger books, or from your teacher. Or 
the dictionary will always tell you how to form the plural of any 
noun. 



91. Exercise. 






I. Write the 


plurals of these nouns: — 


plan 




tooth 


truth 


apple 




woman 


foot 


flower 




index 


phenomenon 


kiss 




heathen 


goose 


house 




shot 


bench 


mouse 




scissors 


radius 


dish 




cameo 


trout 


disk 




cuckoo 


mathematics 


topaz 




turkey 


milk 


orange 




knife 


optics 


negro 




mother-in-law 


louse 


potato 




wharf 


ox 


trio 




staff 


cupful 


II. Write 


the 


\ singulars of these 


nouns : — 


ducks 




vertices 


bellows 


geese 




beaux 


swine 


feet 




crises 


aborigines 


loaves 




dice 


ashes 


strata 




thanks 


theses 


monkey 




oxen 


axes 


beauties 




sheep 


mice 


analyses 




women 


kine 



92. Gender is that property of the noun which is used 
to tell something about the sex of its object. There are 
only two sexes, male and female. But, as we have 
already learned, nouns can tell us four things concern- 
ing sex. So there are four genders : Masculine, Femi- 
nine, Neuter, and Common. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

93. A noun of the Masculine Gender represents a 
male object ; as, — 

boy, uncle, bachelor, Joseph. 

94. A noun of the Feminine Gender represents a 
female object ; as, — 

girl, aunt, maid, Josephine. 

95. A noun of the Neuter Gender represents an 
object which has no sex ; as, — 

book, stump, table. 

96. A noun of the Common Gender represents either 
one or more objects whose sex is unknown, or a num- 
ber of objects, some males and some females ; as, — 

child, parent, person, children, scholars. 

97. Nouns distinguish the sex of their objects in 
three ways : — 

(1) By Different Words, — 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


boy 


girl 


lad 


lass 


brother 


sister 


man 


woman 


drake 


duck 


son 


daughter 


father 


mother 


uncle 


aunt 



(2) By Different Terminations, — 

Mas. Fern. Mas. Fern. 

abbot abbess lion lioness 

actor actress prince princess 

(3) By Prefixes and Suffixes, 

Mas. Fern. 

he-bear she-bear 

man-servant maid- servant 

, T T ( Miss Jones 

Mr. Jones { ,, 

( Mrs. Jones 



PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN. 27 

98. Case is that property of the noun which tells us 
something about its relation to other words in the sen- 
tence. A noun may have, — 

(1) a subjective relation ; as, Pearl studies her lesson; 

(2) a possessive relation ; as, PearVs book; 

(3) an objective relation ; as, I saw Pearl; or, 

(4) no relation ; as, Pearl, you must do better ! 

99. So we have the four corresponding cases : — 

(1) Nominative (or Subjective). 

(2) Possessive. 

(3) Objective. 

(4) Absolute (or Independent). 

100. Declension of Nouns. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. girl 


girls 


Poss. girl's 


girls' 


Obj. girl 


girls 


Abs. girl 


girls 



101. From the declension we see that the posses- 
sive case is the only one that is indicated by the noun 
itself. Whether a noun is nominative, objective, or 
absolute must be determined from its position in the 
sentence, not from its form. In these three sentences 
the form of the noun John is the same : — 

Nom. John struck James. 
Obj. James struck John. 
Abs. O John, come here ! 

102. Then we may remember that the case of a 
noun always depends upon its construction or use. 

103. Construction, in grammar, always means use. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

104. Subjective would have been a better name for 
this case ; for a noun is never in the nominative case, 
unless it is the subject of a finite verb, or in some 
way related to the subject. 

(1) It may be the subject of the verb ; as, The general is dead. 

(2) It may be coupled to the subject by a copulative verb ; as, 
Lee was a great general. 

(3) It may explain the subject ; as, Sherman, the great general, 
is dead. 

105. Hence we have three constructions for the nomi- 
native case : — 

(a) The subject of a finite verb. 

(b) The complement of a copulative verb. 

(c) In apposition. 

106. The following are the Rules for the Nominative 
Case, and they apply to both nouns and pronouns : — 

107. Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the sub- 
ject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

Charlie and /will go. 

108. Rule VI. — A noun or a pronoun, used as the 
complement of a copulative verb, is in the same case 
as its subject. 

(a) Kemember that this rule applies to the nominative case only 
when the subject of the copulative verb is nominative ; as, We are 
farmers. It applies to the objective case when the subject of the 
copulative verb is objective ; as, He wanted us to be farmers. 

109. Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun in apposition 
is in the same case as the noun or pronoun which it 
explains. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 29 

(a) When one noun explains another, the explaining noun is 
said to be in apposition with the other. 

(b) A noun in any case may have a noun in apposition with it. 

(c) So that the rule applies to the nominative case only when 
the noun or pronoun explained is nominative ; as, Cook, the mer- 
chant, is an honest man. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

110. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun to 
denote, — 

(1) Ownership ; as, Emma's bonnet. 

(2) Authorship ; as, Ray's arithmetic. 

(3) Origin ; as, The sun's rays. 

(4) Kind ; as, Children's shoes. 

(a) The possessive case may nearly always be known by the 
form of the word. 

(b) But when a noun in the possessive case is explained by a 
noun in apposition with it, or by a prepositional phrase, the posses- 
sive sign is used with the appositive noun, or with the noun in the 
phrase ; as, Smith, the baker's wife, died; The commander of the 
regiment's horse was shot. 

111. Rule VIII. — A noun or pronoun limiting 
another noun signifying a different thing is in the 

possessive case. 

112. Rule III. — The subject of a participle not 
depending on any other word in the sentence is in the 
possessive case or the absolute. 

John's coming frightened us. 

Mary's whispering to me got me in trouble. 

113. Directions for writing the Possessive Forms of 
Nouns. 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



(1) All singular nouns, and all plural nouns not ending with s, 
form their possessives by adding the apostrophe and s ('$) ; as, 
boy's, mother's, James's, child's, man's; children's, men's. 

(2) All plural nouns ending in s form their possessive by adding 
only the apostrophe (') ; as, boys' 1 boots ; mothers' 1 requests. 

114. Exercise. 

I. Write sentences containing the possessive singular 
and the possessive plural of the following nouns : — 



boy 


man 


Oliver 


beauty 


goose 


child 


court-martial 


people 


lady 


Jones 


German 


leader 


deer 


sheep 


volcano 


army 



THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

115. This case is so named because any noun or 
pronoun in it is nearly always the object of a verb or 
preposition. 

116. But a noun or pronoun may have other uses, 
and be in the objective case, as may be seen from the 
following Rules for the Objective Case. 

(a) All of these rules will be clearer to us after we have studied 
the pronoun and the verb. 

117. Rule IV. — A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of an active transitive verb is in the objective case. 

God made the world. 
Susan tore her book. 

(a) A passive verb never takes an object after it ; its subject is 
its object. 

118. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used as the 
object of a preposition is in the objective case. 



THE ABSOLUTE CASE. 31 

He went from New York to Liverpool in eight days. 

(a) Sometimes the preposition which governs the noun or pro- 
noun is not expressed ; as, She waited [for] an hour. Give [to] 
me your pencil. Parse all such nouns and pronouns as the object 
of prepositions understood. 

119. Rule II. — A noun or pronoun used as the 
subject of an infinitive is in the objective case when it 
is not also the subject of a finite verb. 

He wanted Ella and me to stay. 

120. VI. — A noun or pronoun used as the comple- 
ment of a copulative verb is in the same case as its 
subject. 

(a) This rule applies to the objective case only when the copula- 
tive verb is an infinitive having its subject in the objective case ; 
as, He wanted me to be a tailor. 

121. Rule VII. — A noun or pronoun in apposition 

is in the same case as the noun or pronoun which it 

explains. 

(a) This rule applies to the objective case only when the noun or 
pronoun explained is in the objective case ; as, I saw Brown, the 
banker ; He lives in Boston, the capital of Massachusetts. 

122. From this we have the Five Constructions of 
the Objective Case : — 

(1) Object of a transitive verb : She cut her finger. 

(2) Object of a preposition : They live on the hill. 

(3) Subject of an infinitive : We want the boys to come. 

(4) Complement of an infinitive copula : We expect him to be 
a lawyer. 

(5) In apposition : We heard Brooks, the great preacher. 

THE ABSOLUTE CASE. 

123. The Absolute Case is so called because a noun 
or pronoun in it is either independent of the rest of 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

the sentence, or depends upon another word which : 
independent. 

124. We may speak directly to some one ; as, — 

George, you must not do that. 
Here we are said to use the name by direct address. 

125. We may just exclaim some name; as, — 

Mercy ! 
Here we use the noun by exclamation. 

126. We may place a noun before a sentence re- 
ferring to it ; as, — 

The stars, how bright they are ! 

This use of a noun is called pleonasm. 

127. Or we may just place a name on a coin, a 
sign, a book, or a monument, without forming a sen- 
tence ; as, — 

One dollar; Boots and Shoes; 
Harvey's Grammar; Daniel Newman. 

This use of a noun is called inscription. 

128. When a participle and its subject are inde- 
pendent of the rest of the sentence, the subject is in 
the absolute case. It is then said to be absolute with 
the participle ; as, — 

John laughing at me, I left the room. 

In parsing such nouns as John in the above sentence 
you may refer to Rule III. 

129. A noun is in the absolute case also when it is 
in apposition with another absolute noun ; as, — 

Woods, the preacher, having told us, we believed it 



PARSING. 33 

Here preacher would be parsed as in apposition with 
Woods, according to Rule VII. ; Woods would be 
parsed as the subject of the participle having told, 
according to Rule III. 

130. From this we may get the Five Absolute Con- 
structions : — 

(1) By direct address : Lucy, study your lesson. 

(2) By exclamation : Goodness ! ' 

(3) By pleonasm : The boy, O where was he ? 

(4) By inscription : English Grammar for Beginners. 

(5) With (subject of) a participle : Spring coming on, we 
planted our flowers. 

(6 J In apposition : Willie, you naughty boy ! 

(a) The first four constructions are included in Kule IX., the 
fifth in Rule III., and the sixth in Rule VII. 

131. Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used inde- 
pendently is in the absolute case. 



PASSING. 

132. We are now ready to study grammar in a 
much more interesting way. You will find Parsing a 
most excellent means of training your minds to think. 
It will also help you to fix in your memory all the 
definitions and rules that we need, so that you can- 
not forget them. But the best thing about it is that 
it makes study and recitation so very interesting that 
they seem like play rather than work. 

133. Parsing of a word is naming its part of speech ; 
its class (that is, if it is a noun, tell whether it is com- 
mon or proper ; if a verb, whether transitive or in- 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

transitive, etc.) ; its properties ; its t construction or 
use in the sentence ; and the rule under which its use 
is included. 

134. Now, for you to get the most good from the 
parsing, you must write all of it, or the part which 
the teacher assigns, very neatly on your slates or 
paper, taking care to follow the exact order given in 
the model, and to make no mistakes in using the 
punctuation marks and capital letters. 

PASSING OF THE NOUN. 

135. Model for the Noun. 

(1) Part of Speech. (5) Gender. 

(2) Class. (6) Case. 

(3) Person.^ (7) Construction. 

(4) Number. (8) Rule. 

(1) John's book was in my satchel, Anna. 

John's is a n., prop., third, sing., mas., poss., and limits "book," 
R. VII. 

Book is a n., com., third, sing., neut, nom., subject of the verb 
"was," R. I. 

Satchel is an., com., third, sing., neut., obj., object of the prep- 
osition "in," R. V. 

Anna is a n., prop., second, sing., fern., absolute by direct address, 
R. IX. 

PAKSING EXEKOISES. 

136. Nominative Case. 

(a) Always point out the subject and predicate of a sentence 
before parsing the words. 

(1) Francis is a good boy. 

(2) Laura is his sister. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 35 

(3) Mr. Dorchester, the professor, is also a preacher. 

(4) God, our creator, is our preserver. 

137. Nominative and Possessive Case. 

(1) The child'' s feet were frozen. 

(2) The ox's horn is his iveapon. 

(3) Ladies' gloves here. 

(4) Brown the lawyer's wife died. 

(5) Dr. Armstrong, our president, is Mrs. Noble's brother. 

138. Nominative and Objective Case. 

(1) Edith brought me a bunch of flowers. 

(2) Sirius is a bright star. 

(3) The Queen of Sheba heard of Solomon's ivisdom. 

(4) *Si« is a reproach to any people. 

(5) Gibbon, the historian, wrote " TT^e Downfall of Borne." 

(6) Jlaron J9wrr killed Hamilton, one of America's greatest 
sta£es?fteft. 

(7) Mrs. (7oo& wants her son, Harry, to be a doctor. 

(8) They crowned Victoria queen of England. 

(9) Mohammedans call Mecca the holy c%. 
(10) Noah's sisters want him to be sprinter. 

139. Nominative, Objective, and Absolute Case. 

(1) William, shut the door. 

(2) Speak to the cMd more kindly, Mary. 

(3) Scotland ! there is music in the sound. 

(4) O virtue ! when will mew follow thy guidance? 

(5) Fiddlesticks ! I do not believe a word of that star?/. 

(6) The ftacl* having gone, we walked to the station. 

(7) Om fathers, where are they ? 

(8) Flag of the seas / on ocean-wave 
Thy stars shall glitter o'er the brave. 

(9) Auspicious hope ! in thy sweet garden grow 
Wreaths for each tai7, a charm for every woe. 

(10) O, mother, come back from that echoless shore ! 



THE PRONOUN. 

140. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun : — 

Mattie lost her pencil. 

Wliat do you want ? 

The horse that was sick is dead. 

141. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the word it 
stands for. It is always a noun or some expression 
used as a noun. In the first sentence above, Mattie 
is the antecedent of the pronoun her, because her is 
used in place of the noun Mattie. In the third sen- 
tence, horse is the antecedent of that. And the ante- 
cedent of what, in the second sentence, is some word 
that responds to it in the sentence that answers the 
question. If the answer should be, 

I want money, 

then money would be the antecedent of what. 

142. These three sentences represent the three 
uses of pronouns, — 

(1) To avoid the repetition of nouns ; as, — 

Mattie lost her pencil, 
instead of, — 

Mattie lost Mattie's pencil. 

(2) To ask a question ; as, — 

What do you want? 
36 






CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 37 

(3) To represent a preceding noun, and join to it a 
limiting clause ; as, — 

The horse that was sick is dead. 

Here the pronoun, that, represents the noun, horse, 
and joins to it the limiting clause, that was sick. 

143. Since the pronoun has three uses, there are, 
therefore, three 



CLASSES OP PKONOUNS. 

144. (1) A Personal Pronoun is one that has 
different forms for the different persons ; as, — 

/ or we for the first person ; 

thou, yon, or ye for the second person ; 

he, she, or it for the third person. 

145. The personal pronouns are /, thou or you, he, 
she, it, they, them, and their declined forms. (See 
Declension.) 

146. (2) An Interrogative Pronoun As one that 
asks a question ; as, — 

Who is he ? What does he want ? 

(a) Who and what are the only interrogative pronouns. 

147. (3) A Relative Pronoun is one that joins 
to its antecedent a limiting clause ; as, — 

The man that spoke about war is a captain. 

148. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, 
what, and as. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

SUB-CLASSES OP PKONOUNS. 

149. The personal and the relative pronouns have 
the sub-classes Simple and Compound. 

150. The Compound Personals are formed by add- 
ing self or selves to the simple personals ; as, — 

myself, yourself, himself, itself; ourselves, themselves. 

151. The Compound Relatives are formed by adding 
ever or soever to the simple relatives who and which, 
and to the double relative what; as, — 

i whoever, whosoever ; whichever, whichsoever; 

whatever, whatsoever, 

152. The relative as has no compound form. 

153. The relative what is said to be double, because 
it is equivalent to two parts, an antecedent part and a 
relative part. Thus, — 

I give you what I have, 

is equivalent to, 

I give you the thing ichich I have. 

Thing is the antecedent part and which the relative 
part of the double relative " what." 

154. In parsing, always expand what into the thing 
which ; and whatever into the thing whichever. Then 
parse the parts separately. 

155. The Interrogative Pronouns are always simple. 

156. There are two important differences between 
the personal and the relative pronoun. 



PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS. 39 

157. (1) The personal may be used either in inde- 
pendent or in dependent sentences ; as, — 

I saw you strike him. 

He is the man whom / saw with you. 

While the relative is never found except in depend- 
ent sentences ; as, — 

The tree that you planted is not growing. 

(a) Such dependent or subordinate sentences are called relative 
clauses. 

158. (2) The personal has a certain form for each 
grammatical person ; as, — 

/ for the first ; 

you for the second; and 

he, she, or it for the third. 

While the same form of a relative may stand for an 

antecedent of the first, the second, or the third 

person ; as, — 

/ who saw it will speak ; 
You -who saw it will speak; 
He who saw it will speak. 



PKOPERTIES OF PKONOUNS. 

159. The pronoun has the same grammatical Drop- 
erties as the noun, — Person, Number, Gender, and 
Case. 

160. But the personal pronoun nearly always 
shows its properties by its form. Thus, he is always 
third person, singular number, masculine gender, and 
nominative case. 

161. The particular properties of each of the per- 
sonal pronouns may be learned from its declension. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



This declension is very important, and we must learn 
it so that we can repeat it in order without the book. 
This, together with a few rules which we can easily 
remember, will enable us to use all the pronouns 
without making any mistake. And this will be very 
important, for some of the very worst mistakes in 
language are misuses of the pronoun. 

162. Declension of Personal Pronouns. 







FIRST PERSON. 








Singular. 
Nom. I 




Plural. 
we 




Poss. my < 


ov mine 




our 


or ours 


\ 


Obj. me 






us 








SECOND PERSON. 








COMMON FORM. 




» 


OLD 


FORM. 


Singular and Plural. Singular. 
Nom. you thou 




Plural. 

ye 


Poss. 
Obj. 


your or yours 
you 


thy or 
thee 


thine 




your or yours 
you 






THIRD PERSON. 








MASCULINE. 


FEMININE. 




NEUTER. 


Nom. 
Poss. 


Sing. Plu. 
he they 
his { th eir or 
I theirs 


Sing. 
she 
her or 
i hers 


Plu. 

they 

their 

th 


or) 


Sing. Plu. 
it they 

its ( theiror 
I theirs 


Obj. 


him them 


her 


them 




it them 



(a) The absolute case always has the same form as the nomi- 
native. 

163. Declension of Relative Pronouns. 

Singular and Plural. 



Nom. 


who 


which 


that 


Poss. 


whose 


whose 


whose 


Obj. 


whom 


which 


that 



PARSING OF PKONOUNS. 41 

(a) Since the pronoun ivhat never changes its form, it is said to 
be indeclinable. 

164. Who always stands for the name of a person ; 
which for the name of a brute animal or inanimate 
object ; and that for the name of & person, brute animal, 
or inanimate object ; as, — 

The man ivho told you is mistaken. 

The horse ivhich you bought is lame ; or, 
The book which you bought is torn. 

The man that told you is mistaken ; 
The horse that you bought is lame ; or, 
The book that you bought is torn. 

165. Declension of the Interrogative Pronoun. 

Norm, who 
Poss. whose 
Obj. whom 

166. All the rules that have been given for nouns 
apply also to pronouns. But for the complete parsing 
of the pronoun we must have one more rule; that 
is, the rule for the pronoun's agreement with its ante- 
cedent, in person, number, and gender. Compare 
the pronouns with their antecedents in the following 
sentences : — 

7, Martha Washington, do speak to you. 

Mary, I will give you the pencil. 

Mary lost her grammar. 

The children know their lessons. 

The boy broke his knife. 

The girl gave me her ring. 

The chair has its leg broken. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

Hence, — 

167. Rule XIV. — A pronoun agrees with its ante- 
cedent in person, number, and gender. 

PAKSING OP PEONOUNS. 

168. Model for the Pronoun. 

(1) Part of Speech. 

(2) CLASS (Personal, Relative or Interrogative). 

(3) SUB-CLASS (Simple, Compound or Double). 

(4) Antecedent. 

(5) AGREEMENT (in Person, Number, and Gender). 

(6) Rule for Agreement. 

(7) Case. 

(8) Construction. 

(9) Rule for Construction. 

(10) DECLENSION (may be given orally). 

169. Personal Pronouns. 

The boy wanted to give his apple to Elva, but she would not 
take it. 

His is a pron., pers., simp., ante, is "boy," with which it agrees 

in third, sing., mas., R. XIV., poss., and limits "apple," 

R. VII. (Decline it orally.) 
She is a pron., per., simp., ante, is "Elva," with which it agrees 

in third, sing., fern., R. XIV., nom., subj. of "would take," 

R. I. (Decline it.) 
It is a pron., per., simp., ante, is "apple," with which it agrees 

in third, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of "would take," 

R. IV. 

170. Exercise. 

I. Write, by the model, the parsing of the words in 
italics. 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 43 

(a) The teacher can make it very interesting and instructive to 
the class to require them to point out the subject and predicate of 
every sentence ; to give the oral parsing of the parts of speech they 
have gone over ; to tell whether the verbs are transitive or intransi- 
tive, attributive or copulative ; to name the phrases, the objective 
complements, and the attributive complements, etc., etc. This will 
vary the exercises of the recitation, and also impress upon the 
minds of the pupils a clear understanding of these important points. 

(1) The boy found his knife, but he soon lost it again. 

(2) George, keep the apples till / come, and we will put them 
into the basket. 

(3) Why do you laugh at me ? 

(4) The nightingale sang her sweetest song. 

(5) Bob hurt himself with his bow. 

(6) /shall do it, myself. 

(7) We wanted him to stay with us. 

(8) She thought /was he. 

(9) She thought me to be him. 
(10) They wanted it for themselves. 

171. Interrogative Pronouns. 

(1) Who discovered America ? 
Answer — Columbus discovered America. 

(2) Who took my pencil ? 

Answer — not given. So we do not know the antecedent of who, 
and cannot, therefore, give its person, number, or gender. 

Who is a pron., inter., ante, is "Columbus," with which it 
agrees in third, sing., mas., R. XIV., nom., subj. of "dis- 
covered," R. I. 

Who is a pron., inter., ante, unknown, with which it agrees 
in person, number, and gender, unknown, R. XIV., nom., 
subj. of "took," R. I. 

172. Exercise. 

I. Write the parsing for the italicized words. 

(a) The teacher should show the pupils what may be the answer 
to each question, and that the case and construction of the interroga- 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

tive is always the same as the case and construction of Us ante- 
cedent. 

(1) Who went with you ? 

(2) What is in your hand ? 

(3) What do these pagans worship ? 

(4) Who sat by her? 

(5) By whom did she sit ? 

(6) WftaZ do i/o it think it is ? 

(7) TFfto did they think i was ? 

(8) JFftom did ^ey think me to be ? 

173. The Relative Pronoun. 

174. The pupils must see that the relative never 
occurs in simple sentences. It is found only in a 
complex sentence ; and not in the principal part of the 
complex sentence, but in the part called the subordi- 
nate clause. 

175. And we must remember also that the relative 
has a use that other pronouns do not have ; that is, a 
connective use. A relative pronoun always joins its 
subordinate clause to its antecedent. 

(a) To make the pupils understand the relative pronoun, the 
teacher should (1) explain that the entire sentence is complex; 
(2) see that they can name the principal part of it, with its subject 
and predicate ; (3) have them point out the subordinate sentence, 
with its subject and predicate ; (4) have them tell what word in the 
principal part of the sentence is the antecedent of the relative ; 
(5) have them state definitely the connective use of the relative. 
All this may be done by the class orally and in concert. Then a 
certain pupil may be asked to rise and read his written parsing. 
Thus, in the first complex sentence below, " The man is my uncle,' ' 
is the principal part of it ; the subject is "man," and the predicate 
is "is uncle." The subordinate sentence is " that told you " ; its 
subject is "that," and its predicate is "told." "Man" is the 
antecedent; and the relative "that" joins its subordinate clause, 
"that told you," to its antecedent, "man." 



PARSING OF PRONOUNS. 45 

(6) The antecedent is always the word that is explained by the 
clause. 

(c) You cannot well go too slowly here. 

(1) The man that told you is my uncle. 

That is a pron., rel., simp., ante. " man," with which it agrees in 
third, sing., mas., R. XIV., nom., subj. of "told," R. I. 

(2) The story of which you speak was written by Mr. Hale. 

Which is a pron., rel., simp., ante. " story," with which it agrees 
in third, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of the preposition 
"of," R. V. 

(3) Whoever says so is mistaken. 

Whoever is a pron., rel., comp., ante, [he], with which it agrees 
in third, sing., mas., R. XIV., nom., subj. of "says," R. I. 

(4) Bring such things as you have. 

As is a pron., rel., simp., ante, "things," with which it agrees in 
third, plu., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of "have," R. IV. 

(5) I gave you what you asked for = 

I gave you the thing which you asked for. 

What is a pron. , rel. , double, = the thing which. 

Thing, the ante, part is a noun, com., third, sing., neut., obj., obj. 

of "gave," R. IV. 
Which, the rel. part, is a pron., rel., simp., ante, "thing," with 

which it agrees in third, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of 

"for," R. V. 

176. Exercise. 

I. Write the parsing for the italicized words. 

(1) Here is the bug that bit me. 

(2) The ring that he gave me is gold. 

(3) He who does his work best will be the happiest. 

(4) He is not the man that we thought he was. 

(5) The flowers which they brought are very beautiful. 

(6) Whoever asks first may go. 

(7) I see what you have. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(8) What he is, we should try to be. 

(9) Ask for whatever you want. 
(10) Give me what you have. 

177. Outline of Substantives : Nouns and Pronouns. 

(a) This outline is to be used in general review. Let pupils 
define and illustrate the terms, and supply sentences to illustrate 
all the constructions. 

la. Classes. 
lb. Noun, 
lc. Proper. 
2c. Common. 
2b. Pronoun, 
lc. Personal. 
Id. Simple. 
2d. Compound. 
2c. Relative. 
Id. Simple. 
2d. Compound. 
Sd. Double. 
3c. Interrogative. 
2a. Properties. 
16. Person, 
lc. First. 
2c. Second. 
3c. Third. 
2b. Number, 
lc. Singular. 
2c. Plural. 
3b. Gender, 
lc. Masculine. 
2c. Feminine. 
3c. Neuter. 
4c. Common. 
4b. Case. 

lc. Nominative. 

Id. Subject of a finite verb. 

2d. Complement of a copulative verb. 

Sd. In apposition. 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 47 

2c. Possessive. 

Id. Limiting a noun meaning a different thing. 

2c?. Limiting a noun meaning the same thing : apposition. 
3c. Objective. 

Id. Object of a transitive verb. 

2d. Object of a preposition. 

3d. Subject of an infinitive. 

M. Complement of an infinitive copula. 

bd. In apposition. 
4c. Absolute. 

Id. By direct address. 

2d. By exclamation. 

3d. By pleonasm. 

4cZ. By inscription. 

5d. With (subject of) a participle. 

6d. In apposition. 



SYNTAX OP NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

178. By the Syntax of any part of speech, we mean 
its relation to the other words in the sentence. We 
study it to be able to use the correct forms of words. 

179. It is easy to use nouns correctly, because they 
do not change their forms for their different cases. 
Thus the noun Tom may be either nominative or 
objective, as we may see from the following sen- 
tences, — 

Tom (nom.) saw me (obj.). 
/(nom.) saw Tom (obj.). 

180. But we see from the same sentences that this 
is not true with pronouns. In the first sentence the 
pronoun is objective, and the form must be me; in 
the second sentence the pronoun is nominative, and 
the form must be L 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

181. There is nothing better for us to learn than 
the correct use of the pronoun; but it will require 
some study of the following rules and exercises, and 
very great carefulness in speaking. 

182. Commit to memory the following Rules : — 

I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite 
verb is in the nominative case. 

II. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject of an 
infinitive is in the objective case. 

IV. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb is in the objective case. 

V. — A noun or pronoun used as the object of a prepo- 
sition is in the objective case. 

VI. — A noun or pronoun used as the complement of a 
copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. 

(a) We are most likely to violate the rules when we use a noun 
and a pronoun together. Thus we should not think of saying 
" They went with I " ; but we sometimes hear, " They went with 
Mary and I," which is just as bad. 

183. Exercise. 

I. Head the following sentences over and over until 
you have them committed to memory. 

II. Tell what rule is illustrated by each of the words 
in heavy type. 



184. Assertions. 



PRESENT TIME. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. It is I. It is we. 

2. It is you or thou. It is you or ye. 

3. It is he or she. It is they. 



SYNTAX OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 49 



PAST TIME. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. It was I. It was we. 

2. It was you or thou. It was you or ye. 

3. It was he or she. It was they. 

FUTURE TIME. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. It will be I. It will be we. 

2. It will be you or thou. It will be you or ye. 

3. It will be he or she. It will be they. 

185. Questions. 

PRESENT TIME. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Is it I ? Is it we ? 

2. Is it you or thou ? Is it you or ye ? 

3. Is it he or she ? Is it they ? 



186. Conditions. 



etc., etc., etc. 



PRESENT TIME. 



Singular., Plural. 

1. If it be I. If it be we. 

2. If it be you or thou. If it be you or ye. 

3. If it be he or she. If it be they. 

etc., etc., etc. 

187. Miscellaneous Examples. 

(1) We saw you and them. (5) He wants Clara and me to go. 

(2) You and they saw us. (6) Clara and I want him to stay. 

(3) John and I went with him. (7) He thought I was she. 

(4) He went with John and me. (8) He thought me to be her. 

(a) In using pronouns of different persons, use the second per- 
son first, and the first person last ; as, " You, he, and I will go." 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

188. Interrogative Pronouns. 

1. Who went with you ? 

2. With whom did you go ? 

3. Who saw you ? 

4. Whom did you see ? 

6. Who do you think he is ? 

6. Whom do you think him to be ? 

7. Who do you think is the right one ? 

8. Whom do you think to be the right one. 

189. Relative Pronouns. 

1. He is the man who we thought was you. 

2. He is the man who we thought you were. 

3. He is the man whom we thought to be you. 

4. He is the man whom we thought you to be. 

5. He is the man who saw you. 

6. He is the man whom you saw. 

7. He is the man who went with you. 

8. He is the man with whom you went. 

190. Study the declension till you are able to de- 
cline any pronoun without the book. This will give 
you the correct form for each case ; then study the 
rules to know when to use each case. 

191. In speaking and writing, be careful to see that 
your pronouns agree with their antecedents in person, 
number, and gender, according to Rule XIV. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

192. We know that every sentence must have a 
subject and predicate, and that it may have other 
words to explain, or modify, the subject and predi- 
cate. The words that explain, or modify, the nouns 
or pronouns of a sentence are called Adjectives, 

193. Every adjective modifies the meaning of its 
noun or pronoun. Sweet apples does not mean the 
same as apples ; and men does not mean the same as 
honest men, ten men, and those men, These additional 
words, siveet, honest, ten, and those, modify the mean- 
ings of the nouns. 

194. An Adjective is a word that modifies the mean- 
ing of a noun or pronoun. 

(1) Bad boys fight. (5) An ox died. 

(2) Ugly dogs bite. (6) Some children quarrel. 

(3) He is sleepy. (7) That book is new. 

(4) Six stars appeared. (8) These stories are wonderful. 

CLASSES OP ADJECTIVES. 

195. If we look at the adjectives in the sentences 
above, we shall see that each modifies, in some way, 
its noun or pronoun ; but they do not all modify their 
nouns and pronouns in the same way. The adjec- 
tives, "bad," "ugly," "sleepy," "new," and "won- 
derful," all express qualities of the objects referred 

51 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

to ; but the adjectives, " six" " some" " that" and 
" these" do not express any qualities of objects. 
" Z?ac? " tells us something of the nature or quality of 
the boys we speak of ; " ugly " tells us something of 
of the nature or quality of the dogs ; and " wonder- 
ful" expresses a quality of the stories. But the word 
"six" does not tell any quality of the stars, whether 
they were large, small, bright, or beautiful. "Some " 
does not tell us anything of the nature or quality of 
the children, whether they are good, bad, sick, or 
well. And the words " that " and " these " merely 
point out objects, without expressing any of their 
qualities. 

196. These two uses of adjectives give us the two 
classes : Descriptive and Definitive. 

197. A Descriptive Adjective is one that expresses 
some quality of an object ; as, — 

sweet, happy, straight, broken, sick, good, American. 

198. A Definitive Adjective is one that does not 
express any quality of an object ; as, — 

a, an, the, this, that, some, several, few, six, sixth. 



SUB-CLASSES OP ADJECTIVES. 

199. The descriptive adjective has three sub-classes : 
Common, Proper, and Verbal. 

200. A Common Adjective is any ordinary adjective ; 

as, — 

good, long, bitter, green, holy, lazy. 




SUB-CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 53 

201. A Proper Adjective is one formed from a proper 
noun ; as, — 

Swiss watches, African forests, English people. 

202. A Verbal Adjective is one formed from a verb ; 

as, — 

a broken nose, a hired man, crushed hopes. 

203. The definitive adjective has three sub-classes : 
Articles, Pronominals, and Numerals. 

204. Articles are the little words A, An, The. 

205. A and An are the Indefinite Articles. 

(a) Use an before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, an 
ox, an old cow. 

(b) Use a before words beginning with a consonant sound ; as, 
a cow, a big ox. 

(c) A and an limit only singular nouns. 

206. The is the Definite Article. 

(a) The may limit either a singular or a plural noun. 

207. Pronominal Adjectives are those that may limit 

nouns not expressed ; as, — 

This [pen] is mine. 
Each [boy] took his place. 
All [men] must die. 
Some [persons] believe him. 

(a) Such adjectives are pronominals also when their nouns are 
expressed. 

(b) The following are pronominal adjectives : this, that, these, 
those, each, every, either, neither, much, little, some, all, such, 
own, any, none, one, both, other, another, certain, divers, else, 
former, latter, first, last. 

208. This points out a near object ; that points out an object 
not so near ; as, This glove (on my hand) is better than that (on 
your hand) . 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

209. These is the plural of this, and those is the plural of that. 
These points out near objects ; those points out objects not so near ; 
as, These gloves (on my hands) are better than those (on your 
hands) . You must learn to use these and those so that you will 
never make a mistake with them. 

210. Former denotes the first, and latter the second, of two 
objects. 

211. Both refers to two objects ; as, Both horses. 

212. Each, when used with other, refers to both of two objects ; 
as, Each helped the other. 

213. Every denotes all of a class taken one at a time ; as, Every 
pupil spoke to me. 

214. Either applies to one or the other of two ; as, Either book 
will satisfy me. 

215. Neither means not either ; as, Neither book will satisfy me. 

216. -4^ includes a whole class ; as, All must die. 

217. None means not one or not any ; as, None (of the pupils) 
are here. None (of the bread) is left. 

218. Own is used to express possession more emphatically ; as, 
My own country. 

219. Several denotes any small number more than two ; as, 
Several times, several children. 

220. Numeral Adjectives are those that express num- 
ber; as, — 

several, few, many ; sixty, forty, third. 

221. Such numerals as several, feiv, many, express 
number indefinitely, and are called Indefinite Numerals. 

222. Such numerals as sixty, forty, third, express 
number definitely, and are called Definite Numerals. 

223. Definite numerals have the three sub-classes : 
Ordinals, Cardinals, Multiplicatives. 



THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 55 

224. An Ordinal Adjective marks the order or posi- 
tion of an object in a series ; as, — 

second, tenth, thirtieth. 

225. A Cardinal Adjective simply tells how many ; 

as, — 

tico, ten , thirty. 

226. A Multiplicative Adjective tells how many fold ; 

as, — 

two-fold, ten-fold, thirty-fold. 

THE PEEDIOATE ADJECTIVE. 

227. An adjective may modify a noun directly ; 

as, — 

I saw a green fence ; 

or it may be used to complete a copulative verb, com- 
monly the verb to be ; as, — 

The fence was green. 

Such adjectives as green in the last sentence are called 
Predicate Adjectives. 

228. A Predicate Adjective is one that completes the 
predicate and modifies the subject ; as, — 

The girl is tall. 
The snake was ugly. 
He seems honest. 
She appeared innocent. 

THE KESULTANT ADJECTIVE. 

229. A predicate adjective modifies the subject 
through the verb. An adjective may also modify the 



56 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



object in such a way as to be related to the verb; 

as — ■ 

She colored her bonnet black. 
He plowed the corn clean. 

Here the blackness of the bonnet, and the cleanness of 
the corn, result from the actions expressed by the 
verbs. The adjectives are therefore called Resultant 
Adjectives. 

230. A Resultant Adjective is one that modifies the 

object in such a way as to express the result of the verVs 

action; as, — 

Much study made him wise. 
They built the fence crooked. 

231. Exercises. 

I. Tell the Class, descriptive or definitive, and the 
Sub-Class, common, proper, or verbal ; article, pro- 
nominal, or numeral, of each of the following adjectives. 

II. Use each one in a sentence. 



great 


this 


a 


those 


wide 


ugly 


one 


any 


beautiful 


broken 


French 


few 


wonderful 


shattered 


four 


kind 


many 


painted 


that 


sincere 


good 


which 


tinkling 


lonely 


Spanish 


either 


flying 


all 


these 


English 


seven 


finished 


III. Write sentences 


in which 




old 


reckless 


strong 


innocent 


cold 


rich 


mighty 


beautiful 


long 


rare 


faithful 


regular 


infirm 


right 


faithless 


bright 






are predicate adjectives. 



DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 



57 



IV. Write sentences in which the following are 

resultant adjectives : — 

wild crazy weak beautiful 

famous drunk strong ugly 

wise sick rich straight 

augry well poor crooked 

COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

232. Most qualities of objects exist in different 
degrees. That is, some men are wise; others are 
wiser or less ivise ; and others are wisest or least wise. 
This difference in the degrees of quality is expressed 
by a change in the form of the adjective, called Com- 
parison. 

233. Comparison is a variation in the form of the 
adjective to express different degrees of quality. 



DEGEEES OF COMPAKISON. 

234. The adjective has three degrees, — Positive. 
Comparative, Superlative. 

235. The Positive is the simple form of the adjec- 
tive ; as, — 

warm weather, practical work. 

236. The Comparative is the form of the adjective 
that expresses a higher or lower degree than the posi- 
tive ; as, — 

warmer weather, less practical work. 

237. The Superlative is the form of the adjective 
that expresses the highest or lowest degree ; as, — 

warmest weather, least practical work. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

KINDS OP COMPAKISON. 

238. There are two kinds of comparison, Ascend- 
ing ; as,— 

beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful; 

and Descending ; as, — 

beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 

METHODS OP COMPAKISON. 

239. There are three methods of comparison : — 

(1) By different endings ; as, loud, louder, loudest. 

(2) By different ivords ; as, bad, worse, worst. 

(3) By prefixes; as, beautiful, more or less beautiful, most or 
least beautiful. 

240. Words of one syllable, and many words of more than one 
syllable, are compared by changing the ending of the positive ; as, 
sweet, sweeter, sweetest; happy, happier, happiest. 

241. Model for Parsing the Adjective. 

(1) Part of Speech. 

(2) CLASS, — descriptive, or definitive. 

(3) SUB-CLASS — common, proper, or verbal ; article, pro- 

nominal, or numeral. 

(4) Comparison. 

(5) Degree. 

(6) CONSTRUCTION. (Tell what the adjective limits.) 

(7) Rule. 

(1) The sweetest flowers fringed the little stream. 

The is an adj., def., art, def., and lim. "flowers" R. X. 
Sweetest is an adj., descrip., com., — sweet, sweeter, sweetest, — 
super, degree, and lim. "floivers," R. X. 



METHOD OF COMPARISON. 



59 



242. Parsing Exercise. 

I. Write the parsing of the italicized words. 

II. Grive the oral parsing of the nouns and pronouns. 

III. Point out the predicate and resultant adjectives. 

(1) Many thoughtless young men spend money foolishly. 

(2) A good name is better than great riches. 

(3) A smoking chimney and a scolding wife try a man's patience. 

(4) The haughty chieftains were brave. 

(5) Some rich people live in old houses. 

(6) All good children sue polite: 

(7) The great general gave a drink to the dying soldier. 

(8) Many important discoveries have been made accidentally. 

(9) Industrious men prosper. 

(10) The Chinese wall has stood a long time. 

(11) She washed her face clean. 

(12) The greatest thing in the world is love. 

(13) The angry waves made her afraid. 

(14) Many of our most noted men have risen from the lowest 
poverty. 

(15) The day has been bright and pleasant. 

(16) Experience made him careful. 

(17) The sly old fox was caught. 

(18) Every cloud has a silver lining. 

(19) The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 



243. Outline of the Adjective. 

la. Kinds. 

lb. Descriptive, 
lc. Common. 
2c. Proper. 
3c. Verbal. 
2b. Definitive, 
lc. Article. 
Id. Definite. 
2d. Indefinite. 



lc. A. 

2c. An. 
2c. Numeral. 
Id. Indefinite. 
2d. Definite. 
lc. Ordinal. 
2c. Cardinal. 
Se. Multiplicative. 
3c. Pronomial. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

2a. Comparison. 2c. Comparative. 

lb. Kinds. 3c Superlative. 

lc. Ascending. 3b. Methods. 

2c. Descending. lc. By different endings. 

2b. Degrees. 2c. By different words. 

lc. Positive. 3c. By prefixes. 

SYNTAX OP ADJECTIVES. 

244. All liabilities to error in the use of adjectives 
may be named under the following heads : Choice, 
Number, Comparison, Position. 

245. Choice. Care should be taken to select the 
adjective that best expresses the meaning intended. 

246. See Dictionary for the adjectives awful, lovely, 
nice, splendid, elegant, terrible, grand, bad. 

247. Do not use : good for well ; less for fewer ; 
or both with same or alike ; as, — 

both the same, both alike. 

248. Never use an adjective for an adverb, or an 
adverb for an adjective ; as, — 

Extreme bad weather ; She looks so siveetly. 

249. Number. Never use them for those. 

250. Do not use these or those instead of this and 
that, before such nouns as kind, sort, molasses, etc. 

251. Comparison. The comparative degree is used 
when only two objects are compared ; the superlative, 
when there are more than two ; as, — 

He is the taller of the two. 
She is more beautiful than her sister. 
Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians. 
She is the loveliest of women. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 61 

252. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives ; 
as, more wiser, most unkindest, etc. 

253. Position. An adjective commonly comes just 
before the word it limits, but adjectives may follow 
their nouns, — 

(1) When used to complete the predicate ; as, The way was 
long-, the wind was cold. 

(2) When the adjective is modified by a prepositional or infini- 
tive phrase ; as, His mother, vain of her rank and gold. Apples 
good to be eaten. 

(3) When the adjective modifies a pronoun ; as, Who else came? 

(4) When the adjective is resultant, or factitive ; as, They made 
the stick straight. 

(5) In poetry ; as, He thought of his sister, proud and cold. 



THE VERB. 

254. A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or 
state ; as, — 

Henry plows. Troy was. The log lies. 

255. The words, to plow, to be, to lie ; plowing, be- 
ing, lying, are verbs also, but they assume the action, 
being, or state instead of asserting it. 



GLASSES OP VEEBS. 

256. Turn back and read paragraphs 25 to 43. 

257. Verbs are classified, — 

(1) According to their relation to subjects, into finite and infinite. 

(2) According to their relation to objects, into transitive and in- 
transitive. 

(3) According to their completeness of predication, into attribu- 
tive and copulative. 

(4) According to their form, into regular and irregular. 

(5) According to their rank, into principal and auxiliary. 

258. By observing the sentences, — 

I go, He goes, They go, 

we see that the form of the verb changes as we 
change the person or number of its subject. That is, 
such verbs are limited by the person and number of 
62 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 63 

their subjects. So we call them Finite Verbs, because 
the word finite means limited. 

259. A Finite Verb is one whose form depends on the 
person and number of its subject. 

260. But we see that the italicized verbs in the 
following sentences do not change their form as we 
change the person and number of their subjects. 

He wants me to go. 
I want him to go. 
We want them to go. 

He saw me going. 
I saw him going. 
We saw them going. 

Such verbs are therefore not limited by the person 
and number of their subjects. So we call them Infinite 
Verbs, because the word infinite means not limited. 

261. An Infinite Verb is one whose form does not 
depend upon the person and number of its subject. 

(a) Here we shall study only the finite verb ; for infinitives and 
participles, see p. 98. 

262. Observe the following sentences : — 

(1) John walks lazily. • (4) She bought a book. 

(2) Martha giggles. (5) The hunter caught a fox. 

(3) The man complains. (6) The snake bit the child. 

We see that all these verbs express action ; but the 
first three represent the action as affecting nothing 
but the subject of the action, while the last three rep- 
resent the action of their subjects as going across to 
objects. Thus, she did the buying, but she bought 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

the object, book. The hunter caught the object, fox. 
And the snake bit the object, child. Now, since such 
verbs as the last three represent action as going across 
from a subject to an object, they are called Transitive 
Verbs, because the word transitive means going across. 
Such verbs as the first three do not represent the 
action as going across to any objects. They are there- 
fore called Intransitive Verbs, because the word intran- 
sitive means not going across. 

263. A Transitive Verb is one that represents the 

action of its subject as affecting an object. 

(a) The object which completes a transitive verb is called an 
objective complement. 

264. An Intransitive Verb is one that represents its 
action, being, or state as affecting only its subject. 

265. A transitive verb expresses action only, while an intransi- 
tive verb expresses action, being, or state. 

266. Verbs usually transitive, like study and read, in Emma 
studies botany, and Paul reads history, are intransitive when used 
so as to refer to no particular object ; as, Emma studies diligently ; 
Paul reads well. 

267. Sometimes an intransitive verb becomes transitive when 
we place after it an object with a meaning like its own ; as, He 
dreamed a dream ; She laughed a laugh. 

268. In such sentences as, — 

That man is a farmer ; 
The black horse is a pacer, 

the verbs merely make the assertions, and the follow- 
ing nouns, farmer and pacer, express attributes of the 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 65 

subjects. Such verbs merely couple to their subjects, 
attributes that are expressed by other words. They 
are therefore called Copulative Verbs, because the 
word copula means to couple. 

269. A Copulative Verb is one that couples to its 
subject an attribute expressed by some other word. 

270. But the thought of the above sentences may 
be expressed in these, — 

That man farms: 
The black horse paces. 

These verbs make the same assertions as those 
above, and they also express the attributes which, in 
the above sentences, have to be expressed by the 
additional words, farmer and pacer. Because such 
verbs thus contain the attributes they assert, they are 
called Attributive Verbs. 

271. An Attributive Verb is one that contains the 
attribute it asserts of its subject. 

272. Any attributive verb may be expanded into a copulative 
verb, and another word expressing the attribute; as, She reads = 
She is a reader ; He sells flowers = He is the seller of flowers. 

273. Tne attribute which completes a copulative verb is called 
an Attributive Complement. 

274. An Attributive Complement always has the use of a 
noun or of an adjective ; as, He is sprinter ; She is sick. 

275. The copula is commonly some form of the verb to be; 
that is, am, be, is, are; was, ivere ; been; to be, or being. But 
some other verbs are often used as copulas ; as, He appeared con- 
tented ; She seems well ; The boy lay sick. 






66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

276. Now before we can understand the next clas- 
sification of the verb, we must learn that every verb 
has three forms, or parts, called Principal Parts. 

277. The Principal Parts of a verb are its Present 
Indicative; as, — 

see, go, move; 
its Past Indicative ; as, — 

saw, went, moved; 
and its Perfect Participle ; as, — 

seen, gone, moved. 

We see from the examples given that some verbs, 
like move, form their past indicative and perfect parti- 
ciple by changing the ending of the present indicative 
to ed ; as, — 

move, moved, moved. 

These are called Regular Verbs. All verbs like see 
and go, that do not form their past indicative and per- 
fect participle by changing the ending of the present 
indicative to ed, are called Irregular Verbs. Thus, — 

see, saw, seen; go, went, gone. 

278. A Regular Verb is one that forms its past in- 
dicative and perfect participle by changing the ending 
of its present indicative to ed (according to the rules 
of spelling). 

279. An Irregular Verb is one that forms its past 
indicative and perfect participle irregularly ; that is, 
not by adding ed. 

(a) To give the principal parts of a verb is to give its conjuga- 
tion. 






IRREGULAR VERBS. 



67 



280. Learn the following 

LIST OP IKKEGULAK VEEBS. 

Those marked with an r may also be used as regular verbs ; 
and, when the italic R is used, it indicates that the regular form is 
preferable. 



Pres. Ind 

Abide 

Am 


Past Ind. 
abode 
was 


Per. Part. 

abode 

been 


Pres. Ind. 

Creep 

Crow 


Past Ind. 
crept 
crew, R. 


Per. Part- 

crept 

crowed 


Bear (to 


bore 


born 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


bring J 01 
Bear (to 

carry) 

Beat 


th) 
bore 

beat 


borne 

f beaten, 
I beat 


Dig 

Do 

Draw 

Dream 

Drink 


dug, R. 
did 
drew 
dreamt, b 
drank 


dug, R. 
done 
drawn 
. dreamt, r. 
drunk 


Begin 
Bend 


began 
bent, r. 


begun 
bent, r. 


Drive 
Dwell 


drove 
dwelt, r. 


driven 
dwelt, r. 


Bet 


bet, r. 


bet, r. 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Bid 


J bid, 

I bade 


bidden, 
bid 


Fall 
Feed 


fell 
fed 


fallen 
fed 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Bite 
Bleed 


bit 
bled 


bitten, bit 
bled 


Fight 
Find 


fought 
found 


fought 
found 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Break 
Bring 
Build 


broke 
brought 
built, r. 


broken 
brought 
built, r. 


Fling 

Fly 

Forsake 


flung 

flew 

forsook 


flung 
flown 
forsaken 


Burn 
Burst 
Buy 
Cast 


burnt, R 
burst 
bought 
cast 


burnt, R. 
burst 
bought 
cast 


Freeze 
Get 
Give 
Go 


froze 
got 
gave 
went 


frozen 
gotten 
given 
gone 


Catch 
Choose 
Cling 
Come 


caught, e 
chose 
clung 
came 


u caught, r. 
chosen 
clung 
come 


Grind 
Grow 
Hang 1 
Have 


ground 
grew 
hung 
had 


ground 
grown 
hung 
had 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Hear 


heard 


heard 



■ Hang, to take life by hanging, is regular. 



68 


ENGLISH 


GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS 




Pres Ind. 


Past Ind. 


Per. Part. 


Pres, Ind. 


Past Ind. 


Per. Part. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Hold 


held 


held 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Know 


knew 


known 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Lead 


led 


led 


Split 


split 


split 


Leave 


left 


left 


Spring 


sprung 


sprung 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Let 


let 


let 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Lie 


lay 


lain 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Make 


made 


made 


Stride 


strode 


stridden 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Strike 


struck 


struck 


Meet 


met 


met 


String 


strung 


strung 


Put 


put 


put 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Read 


read 


read 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


Ride 


rode 


ridden 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Ring 


rang 


rung 


Swim 


swam 


swum 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Run 


ran 


run 


Take 


took 


taken 


Say 


said 


said 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


See 


saw 


seen 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Tell 


told 


told 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Set 


set 


set 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Wake 


woke 


woke, r. 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Wed 


wed 


wed, r. 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Shut 


sh 


shut 


Win 


won 


won 


Sing 


sang 


sung 


Wring 


wrung 


wrung 


Sink 


sunk 


sunk 


Write 


wrote 


written 



A number of regular verbs are sometimes spelled in an abbre- 
viated form, with t instead of ed ; as spelt, spilt, learnt, smelt, blent, 
spoilt, crept, knelt. Call such irregular. 






USE OF THE AUXILIARIES. 69 

281. From the sentences, — 

I plow, I will plow, 

I can plow, I must plow, 

we see that the action is expressed by the verb plow, 
and that the verbs can, will, must are used to modify, 
in some way, the manner of the expression. Because 
they are used thus to aid other verbs, they are called 
Auxiliary Verbs ; while verbs that may be used either 
with or without auxiliaries are called Principal Verbs. 

282. Auxiliary Verbs are those used in the conjuga- 
tion of other verbs. 

283. Principal Verbs are those that may be used either 
with or ivithout auxiliaries. 

284. The auxiliaries are be and have in all their 
forms; do, did; may, might; can, could; must; will, 
would ; shall, should. 

285. Be and have in all their forms, do, did, would, 
and will, are often used as principal verbs ; as, — 

I do the work. 

He did it. 

I would that all men were honest. 

He willed me his property. 

USES OP THE AUXILIAKIES. 

286. Do and did are used for emphasis ; as, You do have the 
money. I did give it to you. 

287. Can and could express power or ability ; as, I can do the 
work. She could fill my position. 

288. May and might express liberty or permission; as, You 
may stay. It might be done. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

289. Can is often incorrectly used for may ; as, Can I use 

your book ? Can the children play with me ? 

290. Must expresses necessity ; as, You must leave the room. 

291. There are, perhaps, no four words in the language more 
frequently misused than shall, should, will, -would ; but care- 
lessness is the only excuse that can be offered for such a blunder. 

292. Shall, in the first person, simply foretells ; in the second 
and third, it expresses a promise, command, or determination, of 
the speaker. I shall know presently. You shall have the reward. 
Thou shalt not steal. The nation shall be free. 

293. Will, in the first person, not only foretells, but expresses 
a promise or determination of the speaker ; in the second and third, 
it only foretells. I will pay you. I will have my pay. You will 
be pleased with the book. He will come to-morrow. 

294. When the sense demands such a change, use should for 
shall, and would for will. We would assist you if we could. 
You should try again. 

295. Exercises. 

I. Commit to memory the following expressions, and 
think about the meaning of each. 

II. Name each verb ; tell whether it is finite or 
infinite ; transitive or intransitive ; attributive or copu- 
lative ; regular or irregular ; principal or auxiliary; 
and give its principal parts. 

(1) May I assist you ? 

(2) Can I assist you ? 

(3) May I have your pencil ? 

(4) I shall know more about it soon. 

(5) You shall have my consent. 

(6) She will go if I request it. 

(7) She shall go if I tell her to do it. 

(8) Will you have tea or coffee ? 

(9) Shall I pour it for you ? 

(10) Shall I go with you ? 

(11) Will you hear what I have to say? 






PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 71 

(12) I shall drown ; nobody will help me. 

(13) I will drown ; nobody shall help me. 

(14) I should not have thought he would do it. 

(15) I would go if he should ask me. 

PKOPERTIES OF VEEBS. 

296. Verbs have the properties, Voice, to show 
whether the subject represents the doer or the receiver of 
the act; Mode, to indicate the manner in which the 
action, being, or state is expressed; Tense, to denote 
time ; and Person and Number, to mark the verVs agree- 
ment inform with the person and number of its subject. 

VOICE. 

297. Voice is that property of the verb which shows 
ivhether the subject represents the doer or the receiver 
of the act. There are, therefore, two voices, — Active 
and Passive. 

298. Active Voice is that form of the verb tvhich 
makes its subject represent the doer of the act ; as, — 

Homer wrote the Iliad. 

She blames me. 

I will cover her grave with flowers. 

The boy runs. 

299. Passive Voice is that form of the verb which 
makes its subject represent the receiver of the act ; as, — 

The Iliad was written by Homer. 

I am blamed by her. 

Her grave shall be covered with flowers by me. 

300. The active voice is changed to the passive by- 
making the object in the active become the subject 
in the passive. Thus, — 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

Anna studies Algebra — Algebra is studied by Anna. 
Napoleon won many battles — Many battles were won by Napo- 
leon. 

301. Transitive verbs have the two voices, while 
intransitive verbs have only the active. An intran- 
sitive verb can never be changed to the passive voice, 
because it has no object in the active which may be 
made the subject in the passive. 

302. Exercises. 

I. Tell the voice of each verb. 
II. Change the voice and preserve the meaning of 
the sentence. 

(1) Sarah was astonished at the news. 

(2) William bought a book. 

(3) That poem was written by Saxe. 

(4) He will find his money. 

(5) How do you spend your time ? 

(6) I crossed the river before I saw you. 

(7) We desire to be loved by every one. 

(8) The man was killed by a lion. 

(9) She looks as if she wanted to speak. 
(10) He seems sad. 

MODE. 

303. Mode is that property of the verb which indi- 
cates the manner in which the action, being, or state is 
expressed. 

FINITE MODES. 

304. The four finite modes are the Indicative, the 
Subjunctive, the Potential, and the Imperative. 

(a) The two infinite modes are the infinitive and participial. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 73 

305. The Indicative is that mode used to assert a 
thing as a fact, to make a denial, or to ask a question ; 
as, — 

He came. 

He did not come. 

Did he come ? 

306. The Subjunctive is that mode used in subjoined 
propositions to express a thought as doubtful, condi- 
tional, or contrary to fact ; as, — 

If he be honest (donbt), he will sncceed. 

If he pay me (condition), I will work. 

If he had been honest (he was not), he would have paid me. 

307. The subjunctive mode may usually be known by being 
preceded by if, though, lest, unless, except, or that. 

308. The Potential is that mode used to express — 

(1) Tower ; as, I can go. I could go. 

(2) Possibility ; as, It may rain. It might be done. 

(3) Liberty or permission ; as, You may have it. 

(4) Inclination ; as, I should like to see him. 

(5) Duty ; as, You should pay him. 

(6) Necessity ; as, You must leave. 

(7) Wish ; as, May you succeed. 

309. The potential, like the indicative, may be used interroga- 
tively ; as, Could it be done? 

310. The auxiliaries that are the signs of the potential mode 
are may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

311. The Imperative is that mode used to express 
command, entreaty, or supplication. 

312. The subject of an imperative verb is usually you, thou, or 
t/e, understood. 

TENSE. 

313. Tense is that property of the verb which ex- 
presses time ; as, — 

I went (past) ; I go (present) ; I shall go (future). 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

314. Corresponding to the three divisions of time, 
there are the three primary tenses, — 

(1) Present; as, I write. 

(2) Past; as, I wrote. 

(3) Future ; as, I shall write. 

Each of these primary tenses has a perfect tense, thus 
making three secondary tenses, — 

(1) Present Perfect; as, I have written. 

(2) Past Perfect ; as, I had written. 

(3) Future Perfect ; as, I shall have written. 

315. The Present is that tense which denotes present 

time; as, — 

I plow. 

316. The Present Perfect is that tense which may 
denote any period of past time that extends up to, and 
ends with, the present ; as, — 

I have plowed. 

317. The Past is that tense which denotes indefinitely 
any past time ; as, — 

I plowed. 

318. The Past Perfect is that tense which may de- 
note any period of past time that extends up to, and 
ends with, some other specified past time; as, — 

I had plowed the field when he planted it. 

319. The Future is that tense which denotes indefi- 
nitely any future time ; as, — 

I shall plow. 

320. The Future Perfect is that tense which may de- 
note any period of future time that extends up to, and 
ends with, some other specified future time; as, — 

I shall have plowed the field when he plants it. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 75 

321. Let us remember that each of the perfect 
tenses refers to a period of time as perfected or com- 
pleted ; and that the first word of the name of the 
tense tells when the time was perfected. Thus, present 
perfect refers to time that is perfected at the present ; 
past perfect, to time that was perfected at some past 
time; and future perfect, to time that will be per- 
fected at some future time. 

322. Every perfect tense must contain some form 
of the verb have. Thus, the present perfect of go is 
have gone, has gone or hast gone ; the past perfect is 
had gone or hadst gone ; the future perfect is will have 
gone or shall have gone. 



SIGNS OF THE TENSES IN EACH OF THE MODES, 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

323. The Indicative Mode has six tenses. 

(1) Present : Simple form of the verb ; I write. 

(2) Past : Past indicative of the verb ; I wrote. 

(3) Future : Shall or will before the simple form ; I shall write. 

(4) Present Perfect : Have, hath, has, or hast before the perfect 
participle ; I have zoritten. 

(5) Past Perfect : Had or hadst before the perfect participle ; I 
had written. 

(6) Future Perfect : Shall have or will have before the perfect 
participle ; I shall have written. 

324. The Subjunctive Mode also has six tenses, and 
the signs are the same as for the Indicative. 

325. The Potential Mode has four tenses. 

(1) Present: May, can, or must before the simple form; I may 
write. 

(2) Past: Might, could, would, or should before the simple 
form ; I might write. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(3) Present Perfect : May have, can have, or must have before 
the perfect participle ; I may have written. 

(4) Past Perfect: Might have, could have, would have, or 
should have before the perfect participle ; I might have written. 

326. The Imperative Mode has one tense. 

(1) Present: Write. 

327. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses. 

(1) Present : To before the simple form ; To write. 

(2) Present Perfect : To have before the perfect participle ; To 
have vjritten. 

328. The Participial Mode has two tenses. 

(1) Present : The form that ends in ing ; Writing. 

(2) Present Perfect: Having before the perfect participle; 
Having written. 

Remark. — Let the pupil change each of the above verbs to the 
passive voice, preserving its tense. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

329. Person and Number are the properties accord- 
ing to which the verb changes its form to suit the 
person and number of its subject, — 

I write. He writes. They write. 

330. Person and Number belong only to finite 
verbs. Infinitives and Participles never change their 
form for the person and number of their subject. 

INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

331. Inflection is any variation inform which a verb 
may undergo to indicate Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and 
Number, and its Principal Parts. 

332. The Conjugation of a verb is the naming of 
its principal parts ; its Synopsis is its variation in form 
through its different voices y modes, and tenses, in a 
single person and number. 






THE VERB BE. 



77 



I. THE VEEB BE. 
Principal Parts. 

Present, Am ; Past Indicative, Was ; Perfect Participle, Been. 

INFLECTION. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 



1. I am. 

2. You are. 

3. He is. 



Singular. 

1. I was 

2. You were. 

3. He was. 



Singular. 

1. I shall be. 

2. You will be. 

3. He will be. 



1. 



Singular. 
I have been. 



Plural. 

1. We are. 

2. You or ye are. 

3. They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We were. 

2. You or ye were. 

3. They were. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We shall be. 

2. You or ye will be. 

3. They will be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
1. We have been. 



2. You have been. 

3. He has been. 

Singular. 

1. I had been 

2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 



2. You or ye have been. 

3. They have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

1. We had been. 

2. You or ye had been. 

3. They had been. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. 2. You or ye will have been. 

3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. You may be. 2. You or ye may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. You might be. 2. You or ye might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. 2. You or ye may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. 2. You or ye might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be. 2. Be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be ; Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Being ; Perfect, Having been. 

333. By using the conjunction, if all the Tenses of the Indica- 
tive and Potential Modes may be made conditional, or subjunctive. 



THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE VERB MOVE. 



79 



II. THE EEGULAE TEANSITIVE VEEB MOVE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present, Move ; Past Indicative, Moved ; Perfect Participle, Moved. 

INFLECTION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 







PRESENT 


TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I move. 




1. We move. 


2. 


You move. 




2. You or ye move. 


3. 


He moves. 




3. They move. 






PAST TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I moved. 




1. We moved. 


2. 


You moved. 




2. You or ye moved. 


3. 


He moved. 




3. They moved. 






FUTURE 


TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I shall move. 




1. We shall move. 


2. 


You will move. 




2. You or ye will move. 


3. 


He will move. 




3. They will move. 




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


I have moved. 




1. We have moved. 


2. 


You have moved. 




2. You or ye have moved. 


3. 


He has moved. 




3. They have moved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had moved. 1. We had moved. 

2. You had moved. 2. You or ye had moved. 

3. He had moved. 3. They had moved. 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have moved. 1. We shall have moved. 

2. You will have moved. 2. You or ye will have moved. 

3. He will have moved. 3. They will have moved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may move. 1. We may move. 

2. You may move. 2. You or ye may move. 

3. He may move. 3. They may move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might move. 1. We might move. 

2. You might move. 2. You or ye might move. 

3. He might move. 3. They might move. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have moved. 1. We may have moved. 

2. You may have moved. 2. You or ye may have moved. 

3. He may have moved. 3. They may have moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have moved. 1. We might have moved. 

2. You might have moved. 2. You or ye might have moved. 

3. He might have moved. 3. They might have moved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Move. 2. Move. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To move ; Present Perfect, To have moved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Moving ; Present Perfect, Having moved. 



PARSING. 81 

334. Let the pupils change each of the above forms of move to 
the passive voice without changing any other property. 

335. Model for Parsing the Verb. 

(1) CLASSES, — (a) transitive or intransitive ; (b) attributive 

or copulative ; (c) regular or irregular. 
(If irregular, give principal parts.) 

(2) PROPERTIES, — (a) voice ; (5) mode ; (c) tense ; (d) 

person and number. 

(3) CONSTRUCTION (agreement with subject). 

(4) Rule. 

336. Parsing. 

(1) The hunter killed the bear. 

(2) I am sick. 

(3) They will have been invited. 

(4) He ivas considered honest. 

Killed, v., trans., attrib., reg., act., ind., past, 3d, sing., to agree 

with its subj. "hunter," R. XV. 
Am, v., intrans., cop., irreg. — am, was, been — ind., pres., 1st, 

sing., to agree with its subj. "I," R. XV. 
Will have been invited, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., ind., fut. 

per., 3d, phi., to agree with its subj. "they," R. XV. 
Was considered, v., trans., cop., reg., pass., ind., past, 3d, sing., 

to agree with its subj. "he," R. XV. 

337. Exercises. 

I. Give the oral parsing of the nouns, pronouns, 
and adjectives. 

II. Describe each sentence as to form and as to 
use, and name its subject and predicate, simple and 
complex. 

III. Write in full the parsing of the verbs. 

(1) Longfellow was a poet. 

(2) He is studying grammar. 

(3) God helps them who help themselves. 

(4) A boy bought some pigeons. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(5) Some pigeons were bought by a boy. 

(6) I am the vine ; ye are the branches. 

(7) Music hath power to charm the savage breast. 

(8) Gold glitters, and diamonds sparkle. 

(9) I shall leave before he comes. 

(10) The soldier lay dead. 

(11) Brutus Jailed Csesar. 

(12) C8esar was slain by Brutus. 

(13) When may the children go? 

(14) Be kind to the stranger. 

(15) What is so fair as a day in June ? 

(16) Adams and Jefferson are no more. 

(17) The cat caught a rat. 

(18) She looks lazy. 

(19) Cats and dogs quarrel. 

(20) Christ stilled the waves. 

(21) Barking dogs never bite. 

(22) The farmer sows the seed and reaps the harvest. 

(23) Bring me a drink. 

(24) That he should doubt my word astonished me. 

(25) " I would not rob a bird," 

Said little Mary Green ; 
" I think I never heard 
Of anything so mean." 

338. Outline of the Verb. 

la. Classes. lc. Attributive. 

lb. According to their rela- 2c. Copulative. 

tion to subjects. 4&. According to their form. 

lc. Finite. lc. Regular. 

2c. Infinite. 2c. Irregular. 

Id. Infinitive. 5&. According to their rank. 

2d. Participle. lc. Principal. 

26. According to their rela- 2c. Auxiliary, 

tion to objects. 2a. Parts, 

lc. Transitive. lb. Principal. 

2c. Intransitive. lc. Present indicative. 

3b. According to their com- 2c. Past indicative. 

pleteness of predi- 3c. Perfect participle, 

cation. 2b. Auxiliary. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 83 

3a. Properties. 36. Tense. 

16. Voice. lc. Primary. 

lc. Active. Id. Present. 

2c. Passive. 2d. Past. 

26. Mode. 3d. Future. 

lc. Indicative. 2c. Secondary. 

2c. Potential. Id. Present perfect. 

3c. Subjunctive. 2d. Past perfect. 

4c. Imperative. 3d. Future perfect. 

5c. Infinitive. 46. Person. 

6c. Participial. 56. Number. 



SYNTAX OF THE VEKB, 

339. Rule XV. — A finite verb agrees with its sub- 
ject in person and number. 

Example. — I plow. He plows. They plow. 

340. A verb having two or more subjects connected by and 
must be plural ; as, He and I are brothers. 

341. A verb having two or more singular subjects connected by 
oi*, or nor, must be singular ; as, He or she goes. Either the law- 
yer or the doctor teas mistaken. 

342. A- ver ^ having two or more plural subjects connected by 
or, or nor, must be plural ; as, We or they are wrong. The men 
or the women were mistaken. 

343. The pronoun you, whether singular or plural, should always 
have a plural verb ; as, You (one or many) were mistaken. 

344. Exercises. 

(a) In all these exercises to be written the verb must be in the 
present tense in order that its agreement with its subject may be 
noted. 

I. Write five sentences in which the verbs have each 
two or more subjects joined by and. 

II. Write five sentences in which each verb has two 
or more singular subjects joined by or or nor. 

III. Supply suitable verbs in the folloiving blanks : 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(1) Either he or she to blame. 

(2) You or Thomas mistaken. 

(3) Which of these two books best ? 

(4) The condition of the roads very bad. 

(5) What sounds each of the vowels ? 

(6) Neither the boy nor his brother very industrious. 

(7) Which of the soldiers received pensions ? 

(8) Everybody very kind to me. 

(9) I knew that you my father's friend. 

(10) If you there, he saw you. 

IV. Commit to memory the following expressions, 
that you may use these verbs correctly in speaking : — 

(1) You were there when I was. 

(2) He was mistaken about what you were doing. 

(3) Were you with him at the time ? 

(4) John lays his book on the floor, and it lies there. 

(5) He laid his book on the floor, and it lay there. 

(6) He has laid his book on the floor ; it has lain there since 
yesterday. 

(7) Just now I set the bucket on the box, and it sits there. 

(8) Yesterday I set the bucket on the box, and it sat there till 
morning. 

(9) I have often set the bucket on the box, and it has always sat 
there till it was taken away. 

(a) Principal parts: sit, sat, sat; set, set, set; lie, lay, lain; 
lay, laid, laid. 

(b) I go, I went, I have gone. 

(c) I see, I saw, I have seen. 

(d) I write, I wrote, I have written. 

(e) Remember (1) that for a perfect tense we must always use 
some form of the verb have before a perfect participle ; as, have 
gone, have seen, have written; (2) that the past indicative, like 
went, saw, wrote, is never used "with any auxiliary. 



THE ADVERB. 

345. We know that every sentence has a verb and 
its subject ; as, — 

Children play. 

We have learned also that other words, called adjec- 
tives, may be added to the sentence to explain or 
modify the subject as, — 

Happy little children play. 

346. We have now to learn that other words may 
also be put into the sentence to explain or modify 
the verb : as, — 

Happy little children play merrily. 

Such words are called adverbs, because they are usu- 
ally added to verbs. 

347. But an adverb may also modify an adjective ; 

as, — 

She is very good ; 

or another adverb ; as, — 

She sings very sweetly. 

348. An Adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

GLASSES OF ADVEEBS. 

349. Adverbs are classified : (1) as to the idea ex- 
pressed ; (2) as to use. 

85 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

350. As to the idea to be expressed, adverbs are, — 
(a) Adverbs of Time : expressing the idea of Time, 

either when, how long, or how often ; as, — 

ever, never, always, continually, constantly, forever, inces- 
santly, then, meanwhile, when, whenever, while, afterwards, 
before, early, sometimes, frequently, now, then, weekly, early, 
to-day, lately, formerly, hereafter, soon, instantly, directly, forth- 
with. 

(6) Adverbs of Place : suggesting the idea of Place ; 

as, — 

here, there, yonder, everywhere, where, somewhere, anywhere, 
nowhere, wherever, herein, therein, hereby, thereby, elsewhere, 
whither, hither, up, down. 

(e) Adverbs of Manner : answering the question how ; 

as, — 

so, thus, well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, how, anyhow, some- 
how, suitably, happily, together, separately, clearly, silently. 

(c?) Adverbs of Degree : suggesting how much or to 

what extent ; as, — 

much, more, most, little, less, least, for, very, mostly, entirely, 
totally, perfectly, all, altogether, quite, immeasurably, inversely, 
infinitely, nearly, partly, precisely, enough, exactly, sufficiently, 
somewhat, simply. 

(e) Adverbs of Cause, Purpose, or Reason : answering 

the question why ; as, — 

wherefore, hence, therefore, then, thence, consequently, where- 
by, hereby, thereby. 

(/) Adverbs of Doubt : expressing uncertainty ; as, — 

perhaps, probably, perchance, possibly, doubtfully, doubtless, 
certainly. 

351. As to use adverbs are, — 

(a) Simple : having but one use, that is, as modifiers ; 

diligently, in Work diligently. 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 87 

Here the adverb has but one use ; that is, to modify 
the verb ivork, so as to express the idea of manner. 

(6) Conjunctive: having two uses; that is, as modifiers 
and as connectives ; as, — 

while, in Work while the sun shines. 

Here the adverb while modifies shines, and joins the 
subordinate sentence, while the sun shines, to the verb 
work. Because such adverbs thus perform the use of 
conjunctions, they are called Conjunctive Adverbs. 

352. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that limits some 
word in a subordinate sentence which it joins to some 
part of a principal sentence. 



COMPAKISON OP ADVEEBS. 

353. Adverbs, like adjectives, have one property, — 
Comparison ; as, — 

loud, louder, loudest; well, better, best; brightly, more brightly, 
most brightly. 

354. The kinds, methods, and degrees are the same 
as those of the adjective. 

355. Model for Parsing the Adverb. 

(1) Part of Speech* (4) Degree. 

(2) Classes. (5) Construction. 

(3) Comparison. (6) Rule. 

(1) Listen closely vihile your teacher talks. 

Closely is an adv., simp., of manner, — closely, more closely, 
most closely, — pos. deg., and lim. " listen," R. XL 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

While is an adv., conjunctive, of time ; it lim. " talks," and joins 
its subordinate sentence, " while your teacher talks," to 
the verb "listen," R. XL 

356. Exercise. 

I. Give the written parsing for the Adverbs and 
Adjectives, and the oral parsing for the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and verbs. 

(1) The bells rang joyfully. 

(2) Why are you so very lazy ? 

(3) He spoke wisely and well. 

(4) If your lesson is well learned, you will not soon forget it. 

(5) Some people always rise early. 

(6) Christmas will soon be here. 

(7) The north wind suddenly changed. 

(8) The prisoner finally escaped. 

(9) Perhaps Ada can go with us to-day. 

(10) We are going to-morrow. 

(11) We shall start very soon. 

(12) We can do much good by speaking kindly. 

(13) How regularly and rapidly the earth moves ! 

(14) A terrible accident happened quite recently ! 

(15) He is entirely too old to work. 

(16) It was partly my f ault. 

(17) No man is so wise that he cannot learn more. 

(18) A kind deed often drives away sorrow. 

(19) I fully understand my position. 

(20) Where are you going and when will you return ? 

(21) Somehow, somewhere, meet we must. 

(22) Longer and louder and fiercer grew the cries. 

(23) Silently and mournfully they bore him away. 

(24) They read rather too rapidly. 

(25) And far and near, above, below, 
The birds are singing in the snow. 

(26) I shall see her when the boat arrives. 

(27) Lilies grow where the ground is mois' 

(28) Make hay while the sun shines. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVEKB. 89 

357. Outline of the Adverb. 

la. Classes. 6c. Doubt. 

lb. As to meaning. 2b. As to use. 

lc. Time. lc. Simple. 

2c. Place. 2c. Conjunctive. 

3c. Manner. 2a. Comparison. (See Adjec- 

4c. Cause or Purpose. tive.) 
5c. Decree. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVEKB. 

358. Rule XI. — Adverbs limit verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. 

359. Avoid the use of double negatives ; as, — 

I will not do it no more. 

I have not had no bread to-day. 

360. The word following an intransitive verb should 
be an Adjective, if we wish to refer to the condition of 
the subject, or an Adverb, if we wish to denote the 
manner of the action expressed by the verb. Thus, 

He looks strange, 
means he is to us a strange object ; but — 
He looks strangely, 

describes the manner of his looking. If I wish to 

denote my condition at the time of my arrival, I say, 

I arrived safe, 

not safely. Think of the meaning of your sentences, 
and never be guilty of using such expressions as — 

The flowers smell sweetly ; 
John looks badly. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

361. In the sentence, 

We sat on a box of iron, 

the little word on shows in what way the object, box, 
was related to the action expressed by the verb sat. 
That is, it shows the relation between the words box 
and sat. So the word of shows the relation between 
box and iron. The position of such a little word is 
nearly always before some noun or pronoun, called its 
Object. Such words are therefore called Prepositions, 
because pre-position means position before. 

362. A Preposition is a word that shows the relation 
between its object and some other word. 



TEEMS OF EELATION. 

363. There must always be two terms of the rela- 
tion expressed by a preposition. These terms are 
called Object and Antecedent. 

364. The Object of a preposition may be — 

(1) A noun : He came from the city. 

(2) A pronoun : She spoke to him. 

(3) An infinitive : She does nothing, except to grumble. 

(4) A participle : He thinks of beginning his work. 

365. The preposition and its object form a Phrase. 

90 



TERMS OF RELATION. 91 

366. The Antecedent of a preposition is the word 
which the phrase limits. 

367. The Antecedent may be — 

(1) A verb : We stood on the bridge. 

(2) A noun : I saw the city in flames. 

(3) A pronoun : Woe be unto you of little faith. 

(4) An adjective : Their heads were hoary with age. 

(5) An adverb : I read it sufficiently for rny purpose. 

368. It is generally very easy to find the object of 
a preposition, but it is not always easy to find the 
antecedent. We may find them both by asking two 
questions : (1) For the object, put what after the prep- 
osition ; (2) for the antecedent, put what before the 
phrase. Thus, take the sentence, 

From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 
Leaps the live thunder, 

and ask (1) Among what? among crags ; (2) what 
among crags ? leaps among crags. Then crags is the 
object, and leaps the antecedent, of the preposition 
among. 

369. Model for Parsing Prepositions. 

(1) Part of Speech. (2) Relation. (3) Rule. 

(1) We live in the country. 

In is a prep. ; it shows the relation between "live" and "coun- 
try," R. XIII. 

370. Exercise. 

I. Give the written parsing for the Prepositions, and 
the oral parsing for the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(1) He went into the room. 

(2) Harry is looking for his hat. 

(3) The book is on the desk. 

(4) Clark walked down the street with Mary. 

(5) The man near the door lives in the city. 

(6) We walked by the river after sunset. 

(7) It fell through the air to the ground. 

(8) He went from the cabin to the White House. 

(9) A voice was heard from above the clouds. 

(10) They rode over the mountains and through the valley. 

(11) He walked across the plains in search for gold. 

(12) After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was banished to 
St. Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. 

(13) Stop running up and down the hall. 

(14) Put it on the table or into the stove. 

(15) We went up the street, into an alley, down some steps, 
past a store, and along a narrow path, to a basement underneath a 
rickety old building. 



SYNTAX OF PKEP0SITI02TS. 

371. Rule XIII. — A preposition shows the relation 
of its object to the word which the phrase limits. 

372. When the object of a preposition is omitted, it 
usually becomes an adverb ; as, — 

It flew up, around, and down again. 

But sometimes it becomes an adjective ; as, — 
It overlooked the plains below. 

373. All the errors in the use of prepositions may 
be reduced to — (a) Choice, (b) Position, (e) Insertion 
or Omission, (c?) Repetition. 

374. (a) Choice : Choose that preposition which best 
expresses the relation intended. Say, — 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 93 

(1) The storm was followed by (not with) rain. 

(2) He came into (not in) the room. 

(3) He divided it among [between is for two objects] the three 
boys. 

375. (&) Position : Grive the phrase the proper posi- 
tion in the sentence. Do not say, — 

(1) We saw a man digging a well ivith a Boman nose. 

(2) We heard a lecture on teaching geography at 10 o'clock. 

376. (e) Insertion and Omission : Do not omit the 
preposition when it is needed, or insert it when it isn't 
needed. Do not say, — 

(1) She could not refrain [insert from'] shedding tears. 

(2) To whom did he introduce you to 1 

377. (cZ) Repetition: A preposition having several 
objects is commonly used only before the first ; as, — 

(1) He is a man of wealth, fame, and culture. 

But sometimes, for emphasis, the preposition is ex- 
pressed before each of the objects ; as, — 

(2) By industry, by economy, and by good luck, he accumulated 
a large fortune. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

378. In the sentence — 

Robert and Lucy went to Boston and to Chicago, 

the words Robert and Lucy have the same use, both 
the subject of went ; also the two phrases, to Boston 
and to Chicago, have the same use, — to modify the 
verb went. We see also that in each case the two 
parts having the same use are joined together by the 
word and. Such little words are called Conjunctions, 
because the word conjunction means joined together. 

379. But a conjunction may also connect two parts 
not having the same use ; that is, it may join a sub- 
ordinate sentence to some part of a principal sentence ; 

as, — 

(1) You will succeed if you try. 

(2) I left because he was there. 

In the first sentence, the conjunction, if, joins the 
subordinate sentence, you try, to the verb, ivill suc- 
ceed ; and in the second, because joins the subordinate 
sentence, he was there, to the verb, left. 

380. Such conjunctions as these — that is, such as 
join subordinate sentences to parts of principal sen- 
tences — are called Subordinate Conjunctions. 

381. Conjunctions that join two sentences, or two 
parts having the same use, are called Co-ordinate Con- 
junctions. 

94 



THE CONJUNCTION. 95 

A Conjunction is a word whose only office is to join 
together two sentences, or two parts of a sentence, 

(a) Eelative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs are connectives, 
but they have also a modifying use ; conjunctions have no modi- 
fying use. 

A Co-ordinate Conjunction is one that joins two sen- 
tences, or tivo parts having the same use. 

A Subordinate Conjunction is one that joins a sub- 
ordinate sentence to some part of a principal sentence. 

382. A conjunction may join — 

(1) Two Independent Sentences : Young heads are giddij 
and young hearts are warm. 

(2) Two Dependent Sentences : The child is not happy, be- 
cause its father is a drunkard and its mother is dead. 

(3) Two "Words : Mary and Alice are kind and obedient. 

(4) Two Phrases : The boy ran out of the house and into the 
cornfield. We should try to learn all we can and to remember all 
we learn. 

(a) All the above uses require Co-ordinate Conjunctions, but 
the following use requires a Subordinate Conjunction. 

(5) A Subordinate Sentence to some part of a principal : 
I ivill work if he will pay me. 

383. Model for Parsing the Conjunction. 

(1) Part of Speech. 

(2) Class. 

(3) CONSTRUCTION (name the parts connected). 

(4) Rule. 

(1) Carthage and Rome were rival powers. 

(2) He rushed out of the yard and up the street. 

(3) She walked, but he rode. 

(4) He was silent, for he knew not what to say. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

And is a conj., co-or. ; it connects the two words, " Carthage" 

and "Rome," R. XII. 
And is a conj., co-or. ; it connects the two phrases, "out of the 

yard" and "up the street," R. XII. 
But is a conj., co-or. ; it connects the two sentences, " she walked " 

and "he rode," R. XII. 
For is a conj., subor. ; it connects the subordinate sentence, "he 

knew not what to say " to the predicate " was silent," R. 

XII. 

384. Exercises. 

I. Describe each sentence as to form and as to use, 
and name its subject and predicate, simple and com- 
plex. 

II. Grive the written parsing for the conjunctions, 
and the oral parsing for all the other words. 

(1) Julius will remain, but Edith must go. 

(2) Ellen and Frank are going. 

(3) They whistle and sing and dance and shout. 

(4) No boy or girl is allowed to do so. 

(5) He and I will be there. 

(6) Do you live in the country or in the city ? 

(7) He is across the street, but in the shade. 

(8) We shall go to-morrow if the weather is pleasant. 

(9) He spoke and acted as if his life depended on it. 
(10) Heat expands metals, but cold contracts them. 



SYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

385. Rule XII. — Conjunctions connect tvords, 
phrases, or sentences. 

386. Not much can be said to help the pupil in 
the use of conjunctions. He must learn it by observ- 
ing his own language and that of others. 






THE INTERJECTION. 

387. The last of the eight parts of speech includes 
all the little emotion words, or words that express 
feelings of the mind. They are really not parts of 
the sentence, but are just thrown in at the beginning, 
at the end, or between the parts of a sentence. They 
are therefore called interjections, because this word 
means to throw in or between. 

388. An Interjection is any exclamatory word used 
to express some feeling of the mind ; as, — 

alas ! oh ! ah ! hurrah ! indeed ! ha ! la ! fie ! 
pshaw ! hail ! adieu ! welcome ! hark ! lo ! 

389. To parse an interjection, just name its part 
of speech, tell its use (to express feeling), and refer 
to Rule XVII. 



SYNTAX OF INTEKJECTIONS. 

390. Rule XVII. — An interjection does not de- 
pend for grammatical construction upon any other 
word. 

391. Never use interjections except to express feel- 
ings, and then not too frequently. 

97 



INFINITE VERBS. 

INFINITIVES AND PAETIOIPLES. 

392. Infinite verbs are those ivhose form is not modi- 
fied by the person and number of their subjects. 

THE INFINITIVE. 

393. The infinitive is a verb. Every infinitive has 
a subject. The subject is in the objective case when 
it is not also the subject of a finite verb. 

394. As a verb, every infinitive is transitive or in- 
transitive, attributive or copulative, regular or irregu- 
lar ; and has the properties of other verbs, — voice, 
mode, and tense. 

395. It differs from other verbs only in 

(1) It does not assert, but assumes, action, being, or state. 

(2) Its form is never modified by the person and number of its 
subject. 

396. The infinitive may be modified by an adver- 
bial element, the same as finite verbs ; as, — 

The children came to play by the roadside. 
And when transitive, it may govern an object ; as, — 
I like to read history. 

397. Like other verbs, the infinitive, when copula- 
tive, may be followed by a predicate noun or adjec- 
tive ; as, — 

We want her to be a musician. 
I believe him to be honest. 
98 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 99 

398. What has been said of infinitives is true also 
of participles. 

399. Infinitives and participles have the two tenses : 
Present; as, — 

I believe him to be honest ; 
Lucy, seeing us, was frightened ; 

and Present Perfect ; as, — 

I believe him to have been honest ; 
Lucy, having seen us, was frightened. 



DOUBLE USE OF INFINITIVES AND PAETIOIPLES. 

400. Infinitives and Participles are more difficult 
than other verbs, because they have a double, use; 
that is, besides performing the use of a verb, every 
infinitive has the use of a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb. This explains Rule XVI. 

401. An infinitive or participle has the construction 
of a noun when it is used as a noun is used ; that is, 
as the subject, object, or complement of a verb, as the 
object of a preposition, or in apposition. 

402. It has the construction of an adjective when it 
is used as an adjective is used ; that is, to modify a 
noun or pronoun. 

403. It has the construction of an adverb when it is 
used as an adverb is used ; that is, to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

404. Construction of a Noun. 

(1) To see (subj.) is to believe (complement). 

(2) Seeing (subj.) is believing (complement). 

(3) He likes to read (object). 

(4) He likes reading (object). 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

405. Construction of an Adjective. 

(1) We have peaches to sell. 

(2) The log lying there is an oak. 

406. Construction of an Adverb. 

(1) He came to study. 

(2) He came stumbling along. 

407. Parsing of Infinitives and Participles. 

(1) We like to study grammar. 

(2) The boy mocking Emma is a very mean fellow. 

To study is a v., trans., attrib., reg., act., inf., pres., with the 
construe, of a noun, obj. of "like," R. XVI. and IV. 

Mocking is a v., trans., attrib., reg., act., part., pres., with the 
construe, of an adj., and lim. "boy," R. XVI. and X. 

(a) Remember that infinitives and participles do not have per- 
son and number. 

408. Exercise. 

I. Write the parsing for the infinitives and parti- 
ciples, and give the oral parsing for all the other words. 

(1) To sin is to be unhappy. 

(2) George likes to rest. 

(3) Come to see me next week. 

(4) Lying is telling untruths. 

(5) You must learn to study, and then study to learn. 

(a) The teacher may supply other sentences to suit the needs of 
the class. 

409. Exercises for General Review. 

I. Describe each sentence as to form and as to use. 

II. Point out each subject and predicate, simple and 
complex. 

III. Point out the phrases, and tell the use of each. 

IV. Give the oral parsing of all the words. 

(1) The thought is father to the wish. 

(2) The intoxication of his success is the omen of his fall. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 101 

(3) The moon threw her silver mantle over the darkness. 

(4) Night dropped her sable curtain down and pinned it with a 
star. 

(5) Strike for your altars and your fires ! 

(6) Lift your thoughts from earth to heaven. 

(7) The farmer left his plow, the merchant left his counter, to 
shoulder the musket in defence of liberty. 

(8) Roses without thorns are the growth of paradise alone. 

(9) Men that are old and wise should be consulted by the 
young. 

(10) The diamond, which is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 

(11) The question you asked I could not answer. 

(12) Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

(13) I am glad to learn that you are doing well. 

(14) We know that Whitney invented the cotton-gin. 

(15) On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

410. Rules of Syntax. 

SUBJECTS. 

FINITE VERB. 

I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a finite 
verb is always in the nominative case. 

INFINITIVE. 

II. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of an 
infinitive is in the objective case when it is not also the 
subject of the finite verb on which the infinitive depends. 

PARTICIPLE. 

III. When a noun or pronoun used as the subject of 
a participle does not depend upon any other word in the 
sentence, it is in the possessive case or absolute. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 



OBJECTS. 



TRANSITIVE VERB. 



IV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of an 
active transitive verb is in the objective case. 

PREPOSITION. 

V. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a prepo- 
sition is in the objective case. 

IDENTIFICATION. 

ATTRIBUTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

VI. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of 
a copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. 

APPOSITION. 

VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the same 
case as the noun or pronoun ivhich it explains. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun sig- 
nifying a different thing is in the possessive case. 

ABSOLUTE CASE. 

IX. A noun or pronoun used independently is in the 
nominative absolute case. 

MODIFIERS. 

ADJECTIVES. 

X. Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 103 

ADVERBS. 

XI. Adverbs limit verbs, adjectives, and other ad- 
verbs. 

CONNECTIVE OR RELATION WORDS. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

XII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sen- 
tences. 

PREPOSITION. 

XIII. A preposition shows the relation of its object 
to the word ivhich the phrase limits. 

AGREEMENT. 

PRONOUN. 

XIV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in per- 
son, number, and gender. 

FINITE VERB. 

XV. A finite verb agrees with its subject in person 
and number. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

XVI. Infinitives and participles are used as nouns, 
adjectives, and adverbs. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

XVII. An interjection does not depend for gram- 
matical construction upon any other word. 

EXPLETIVES. 

XVIII. The words and, that, there, for, and some 
others are often used merely as introductory expletives. 



ANALYSIS. 

411. To Analyze a sentence is to separate it into its 
elements and point out their relations. 

412. The Elements of a sentence are its parts. 

413. The Subject and Predicate are called Principal 

Elements, because no sentence can get along without 

them. 

(a) For explanations of Simple Subject, Simple Predicate, 
Complex Subject, and Complex Predicate, see sections 5 to 13. 

414. When the verb is attributive, it alone forms 
the simple predicate ; as, — 

He reads. That man steals. 

415. But when the verb is copulative, it requires 
another word, either an adjective or a noun, to com- 
plete the simple predicate ; as, — 

He is a reader. She looks beautiful. 

That man ivas a thief. They were mistaken. 

In such sentences the verb is called the Copula, and 
the noun or adjective is called the Attributive Comple- 
ment, of the simple predicate. Thus, in the above 
sentences, is reader, was thief, looks beautiful, and 
were mistaken are the Simple Predicates ; is, was, looks, 
and were are the Copulas ; and reader, thief, beautiful, 
and mistaken are the Attributive Complements. 

416. All elements, except the subject and predi- 
cate, are called Subordinate Elements. 

104 



CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 105 

CLASSIFICATION OP ELEMENTS. 

417. Elements are classified, — 

(a) As to form : simple, complex, compound. 

(b) As to use : adjective, objective, adverbial. 

(c) As to base : first class, second class, third class. 

418. A Simple Element is one without modifiers, or 
taken without its modifiers ; as, — 

James struck the little girl. 
Here James is a simple element, because it has no 
modifiers, and girl is a simple element, if it is taken 
without its modifiers. The little girl is a complex 
element. 

419. A Complex Element is one that has modifiers ; 

as, — 

The old man gave the red apple to the youngest child. 

Here the old man, the red apple, and to the youngest 
child are complex elements. 

420. A Compound Element is one consisting of two 

parts, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction ; as, — 

Lottie and Ola stopped at the comer store and at the new school- 
house. 

421. An Adjective Element is one that modifies a 
noun or pronoun; as, — 

The poor lame dog ran after his cruel master. 

422. An Objective Element is one that modifies a verb 
as its object ; as, — 

I saw the lion, and he saw me. 

423. An Adverbial Element is one that has the use of 
an adverb ; as, — 

She sings sweetly. He came to town. 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

424. The base of an element is the part of it that expresses the 
leading idea, or the part that is modified ; as in the old man, man is 
the base. 

425. An Element of the First Class is one whose base 
is a single word ; as, — 

The furious animals ran rapidly away. 
In this sentence every element is of the first class. 

426. An Element of the Second Class is one whose base 

is a preposition and its object, or an infinitive ; as, — 

The city of Indianapolis is on White Biver. 
He tried to speak. 

427. An Element of the Third Class is one whose base 

is a subordinate sentence ; as, — 

I believe that he will do it. 

We shall see him when he comes. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

428. A Sentence is an expression of thought in words. 

429. A Principal Sentence is one that is not used as 
a modifier ; as, — 

John helps James. 

430. A Subordinate Sentence is one used to modify 
some part of a principal sentence ; as, — 

I believe John helps James. 

431. A subordinate sentence is also called a clause. 

432. Clauses are Substantive, Adjective, or Adverbial. 

433. A Substantive Clause is one that is used as a 
noun ; as, — 

I know that he is mistaken, 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 107 

434. An Adjective Clause is one that is used as an 
adjective ; as, — 

Men that are good are happy. 

435. An Adverbial Clause is one that is used as an 
adverb ; as, — 

I shall start when the train arrives. 

436. Sentences are classified : (a) according to use ; 
(V) according to form. 

437. (a) According to use, a sentence is Declarative, 
Interrogative, Exclamatory, or Imperative. 

438. A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to 
declare a truth ; as, — 

He is happy. 
He is not happy. 

439. An Interrogative Sentence is one that is used to 
ask a question ; as, 

Is he happy ? 

440. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that is exclaimed 
so as to express a feeling ; as, — 

How happy he is ! 

441. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is 
imperative ; as, — 

Be happy. 

Leave me immediately. 

442. (5) According to form, a sentence is Simple, 
Compound, or Complex. 

443. A Simple Sentence is a single statement; as, 

John studies diligently. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

444. A Compound Sentence is one formed by two 
independent statements joined by a co-ordinate conjunc- 
tion ; as, — 

John studies diligently, and he learns very fast. 

445. A Complex Sentence is one formed by two state- 
ments, one of which depends on the other ; as, — 

John learns very fast, because he studies diligently. 



PEOGEAM FOE WEITTEN OK OEAL ANALYSIS. 

(1) Describe the sentence { C 1 ) As to Form. 
v J I (2) As to Use. 

(2) Give the complex subject. 

(3) Give the simple subject. 

r(l) Form. 

(4) Describe its modifiers as to \ (2) Use. 

1(3) Base. 

(5) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as 
above. 

(6) Give the complex predicate. 

(7) Give the simple predicate. 

r (1) Form. 

(8) Describe the modifiers of predicate as to -j (2) Use. 

1(3) Base. 

(9) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as 
above. 






DIAGRAMS. 

446. A Diagram of a sentence is such an arrange- 
ment of it as will show the relation of its parts. 



DIAGEAMS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

(1) Grass grows. 

(2) Truth is a virtue. 

(3) Sugar is sweet. 

(4) Smith, the merchant, is dead. 



(1) 



Grass 



grows. 



(2) 



Truth 



is — virtue. 



3T 



This diagram shows how to place the 
copula and the attribute. 



(3) 



Sugar 



is— sweet. 



(4) 
Smith, I is — dead. 



[merchant, 

t7ie\ 

This diagram shows how to place an 
appositive element. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

(a) Be very careful to follow the model given on p. 108. 

(1) Grass grows is a simple declarative sentence, 
of which Grass is the simple subject, and grows the 
simple predicate. 

109 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(2) Truth is a virtue is a simple declarative sen- 
tence, of which Truth is the simple subject ; of which 
sentence also, is a virtue is the complex predicate, of 
which is virtue is the simple predicate, is the copula, 
unmodified, and virtue, the attribute, modified by a, a 
simple adjective element of the first class. 

(3) Sugar is sweet is a simple declarative sentence, 
of which Sugar is the simple subject, and is sweet the 
simple predicate ; is is the copula, and sweet is the 
attribute. 

(4) Smith, the merchant, is dead is a simple declar- 
ative sentence, of which Smith, the merchant, is the 
complex subject, of which Smith is the simple sub- 
ject, modified by the merchant, a complex adjective 
element of the first class, of which merchant, the base, 
is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the 
first class ; of which sentence also, is dead is the sim- 
ple predicate, is the copula, and dead the attribute. 

DIAGEAM 01 A COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

(5) He and I went and we returned. 

(5) 
He $ I I went 



and 



we 



returned* 



ANALYSIS OF A COMPOUND SENTENCE, 

(5) He and I went and we returned is a compound 
declarative sentence, of which He and I went, the first 



DIAGRAMS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



Ill 



member, is a partial-compound declarative sentence, 
of which He and I is the compound subject, and is 
the co-ordinate connective, and went is the simple 
predicate ; of the compound sentence, and is the co- 
ordinate connective, and we returned is the second 
member, of which we is the simple subject, and re- 
turned the simple predicate. 



DIAGKAMS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

(1) He has lost the book which I had given to 
him. 

(2) He announced that the train had arrived. 

(3) When he had completed his task the boy went 
out to play. (l) 



He 



This diagram shows 
how to place a rela- 
tive pronoun that is 
used as the object 
of a verb, and also 
as a connective. 

(2) 

He I announced 



has lost 



booh 



I 


had given 






to— him. 




wh 


ich 



(that) train 



the 



had arrived. 



This diagram shows how to 
place an objective clause 
without a connective, and 
also the position of an 
introductory expletive. 



This diagram shows the position 
of an adverbial clause joined 
to the word it modifies by a 
conjunctive adverb. 



(3) 
boy | 


went 






the 


1 






out 






to 


play. 












he 


he 


id completed 






When 





task 



Jiis 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

ANALYSIS OP COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

(1) He has lost the book which I had given to him is 
a complex declarative sentence, of which He is the 
simple subject ; of which sentence, also, has lost with 
its modifiers is the complex predicate, of which has 
lost is the simple predicate, modified by book with its 
modifiers, a complex objective element of the first 
class, of which book, the base, is modified by the, a 
simple adjective element of the first class, and also 
by which I had given to him, a simple adjective ele- 
ment of the third class ; it is also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which I is the simple sub- 
ject; of which subordinate sentence, also, had given 
with its modifiers is the complex predicate ; had given, 
the simple predicate, is modified by to him, a simple 
adverbial element of the second class, and by which, 
a simple objective element of the first class ; which is 
also a subordinate connective and joins its subordinate 
sentence to its antecedent, book. 

(2) He announced that the train had arrived is a 
complex declarative sentence, of which He is the sim- 
ple subject ; of which sentence, also, announced with 
its modifiers is the complex predicate ; announced, the 
simple predicate, is modified by that the train, had ar- 
rived, a simple objective element of the third class ; it 
is also a simple declarative subordinate sentence, of 
which that is the introductory expletive, and the train 
is the complex subject, of which train, the simple sub- 
ject, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of 
the first class ; of which subordinate sentence, also, 
had arrived is the simple predicate. 



SENTENCES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 113 

(3) When he had completed his task the boy went 
out to play is a complex declarative sentence, of 
which the boy is the complex subject, and boy is the 
simple subject, modified by the, a simple adjective 
element of the first class; of which sentence, also, 
went with its modifiers is the complex predicate, and 
went, the simple predicate, is modified by out, a simple 
adverbial element of the first class, and by to play, a 
simple adverbial element of the second class, and also 
by when he had completed hi& task, a simple adverbial 
element of the third class ; it is also a simple de- 
clarative, subordinate sentence, of which he is the 
simple subject, of which subordinate sentence, also, 
had completed, with its modifiers, is the complex pred- 
icate, of which had completed is the simple predicate, 
modified by his task, a complex objective element of 
the first class, of which task, the base, is modified by 
his, a simple adjective element of the first class ; had 
completed is modified also by when, a simple adverbial 
element of the first class ; when is also a subordinate 
connective, and joins its subordinate sentence to the 
verb went. 

(a) For other diagrams the teacher may refer to the " Grammar 
of the English Sentence and Introduction to Composition. 1 ' 



SIMPLE SENTENCES FOE ANALYSIS AND PAESING, 

(1) Stars twinkle. 

(2) The sun shines. 

(3) The earth moves. 

(4) He is a good musician. 

(5) The wind blew fiercely. 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(6) The children are very happy. 

(7) Good girls become happy women. 

(8) Sixteen ounces are one pound. 

(9) Sweet odors filled the balmy air. 

(10) Many wild beasts inhabit Africa. 

(11) Stanley has explored Africa. 

(12) The weary wanderers finally returned. 

(13) Good artists sometimes make poor pictures. 

(14) The breath of autumn chilled the flowers. 

(15) The graves of the soldiers are covered with 
flowers. 

(16) Webster was a man of great power. 

(17) Plato and Socrates were philosophers. 

(18) Heaven hides the book of fate from all 
creatures. 

(19) Birds of beautiful plumage are found in the 
torrid zone. 

(20) The prisoner, anxiously watching the face 
of the judge, was very sad. 

(21) God's balance, watched by angels, is hung 
across the sky. 

(22) Spring comes robed in silken green. 

(23) The sun was now resting his huge disk on 
the edge of the level ocean. 

(24) The weary sun has just hidden its face be- 
hind a cold, gray misty veil. 

(25) Maud Muller on a summer's day 
Raked the meadows sweet with hay. 

(26) For this he shares a felon's cell, 
The fittest earthly type of hell. 

(27) Auspicious hope, in thy sweet garden grow 
Wreaths for each toil, a charm for every woe. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 115 



COMPOUND AND PAETIAL COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

(1) The heavens declare the glory of God, and 
the firmament showeth his handiwork. 

(2) The woods are hushed, the waters rest, 
The lake is dark and still. 

(3) The howling of the wolf and the shrill scream- 
ing of the panther were mingled in mighty concert 
with the war-whoop of the savages. 

(4) Moses smote the rock, and the water gushed 
forth. 

(5) Some men are born great, some achieve great- 
ness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. 

(6) Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon Peter. 

(7) The boat foundered, and all the passengers 
perished. 

(8) The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

(9) The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 

(10) The present age has produced many great 
poets, but none of them have been Shakespeares. 

(11) Virtue is the beauty, and vice the deformity, 
of the soul. 

(12) Misfortune does not always wait on vice ; 
nor is success the constant guest of virtue. 

(13) Jack fell down and broke his crown, 
And Jill came tumbling after. 

(14) Night's candles are burned out, and jocund 

day 
Stands tiptoe on the distant mountain tops. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(15) The farmer sat in his easy-chair, 
Smoking his pipe of clay ; 

And his dear old wife, with busy care, 
Was clearing the dinner away. 

(16) The seasons come, and the seasons go, but 
the sun shines on with unchangeable warmth and 
splendor. 

(17) Art is long, and Time is fleeting, 

And our hearts, though stout and brave, 
Still, like muffled drums, are beating 
Funeral marches to the grave. 

(18) Trust not yourself ; but your defects to know, 
Make use of every friend and every foe. 

(19) The birds around me hop and play, but their 
thoughts I cannot measure. 

(20) The splendor falls on castle walls, 

And snowy summits, old in story ; 
The long light shakes across the lakes, 
And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES FOE PASSING AND ANALYSIS. 

(1) Men that are old and wise should be consulted 
by the young. 

(2) The diamond, which is pure carbon, is a brill- 
iant gem. 

(3) Read thy doom in the flowers, which fade 
and die. 

(4) The detective found the man for whom he 
was looking. 

(5) The criminal fled from the country whose 
laws he had broken. 






SENTENCES FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 117 

(6) Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

(7) Maize, which is another name for Indian corn, 
grows in America. 

(8) People who live in glass houses should not 
throw stones. 

(9) I had a dream which was not all a dream. 

(10) Columbus, who was a Genoese, discovered 
America. 

(11) When their ammunition was exhausted, the 
troops surrendered. 

(12) If we wish to know the force of human 
genius, we should read Shakespeare. 

(13) He that is slow to anger is better than the 
mighty; and he that ruleth his spirit, than he that 
taketh a city. 

(14) Train up a child in the way he should go, 
and when he is old he will not depart therefrom. 

(15) We know what we are, but we know not 
what we may be. 

(16) Whither thou goest I will go, where thou 
lodgest I will lodge. 

(17) Sleep, riches, and health are only truly en- 
joyed after they have been interrupted. 

(18) The cuttle-fish is provided with an ink-bag, 
that it may conceal itself in inky water when it is 
pursued by its enemies. 

(19) The curfew bell is still rung in many parts 
of England, although it was introduced into that 
country by William the Conqueror more than eight 
hundred years ago. 

(20) Wild geese sometimes fly so high that they 
can scarcely be seen. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. 

(21) The Sabbath is the golden clasp which binds 
together the volume of the week. 

(22) None are so tiresome as they who always 
agree with us. 

(23) Tell Envy when she would annoy, 
That thousands want what you enjoy. 

(24) The soul's dark cottage, battered and de- 

cayed, 
Lets in new life through chinks that time 
has made. 

(25) Whether we look or whether we listen, 
We hear life murmur or see it glisten. 

(26) Old Time, in whose bank we deposit our 

notes, 
Is a miser who always wants guineas for 
groats. 

(27) He that filches from me my good name 
Robs me of that which not enriches him, 
And makes me poor indeed. 

(28) Straightway in silence fell the shaggy cheeks 
Of him, the boatman o'er the livid lake, 
Around whose eyes glar'd wheeling flames. 

(29) Broke the deep slumber in my brain a crash 
Of heavy thunder, that I shook myself, 

As one by main force rous'd. 

(30) So I beheld united the bright school 
Of him, the monarch of sublimest song, 
That o'er the others like an eagle soars. 

(31) Not all the gold that is beneath the moon 
Or ever hath been, of these toil-worn souls 
Might purchase rest for one. 






